The Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period I: Human Migrations and the Changing Climate

Bernhard Weninger

L. Mevel, S. B. Grimm, From one camp to another. First results of a comparative techno-economic analysis of the Federmesser-Gruppen lithic industries from the Central Rhineland. In: B. V. Eriksen, E. Rensink, S. Harris (eds.), The Final Palaeolithic of Northern Eurasia. Proceedings of the Amersfoort, Schleswig and Burgos UISPP Commission meetings. Schriften des Museums für Archäologie Schloss Gottorf, Ergänzungsreihe 13 (Kiel 2019), 105-135. A comparative technological analysis of lithic industries provides a means to assess the behavioural evolution of prehistoric societies at different scales of space and time. Furthermore, based on this, behaviour can be considered in an anthropological perspective. The objective of this approach is to evaluate the transformation processes of human societies, taking into account the dynamics of natural factors, and to discuss the degree of variability between human groups at intra-site, intra-regional, and inter-regional levels. The Lateglacial sites from the Central Rhineland constitute an exceptional record in quality and detailed preservation (Street et al. 2006; 2012), and make possible a major contribution to the discussion about the important transformation of the technical and economic behaviour. The technological analysis of several sites (Gönnersdorf SW, Andernach-Martinsberg AN2- FMG and AN3-FMG, Kettig, Niederbieber concentrations 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, and Bad Breisig) dated between 12,500 and 10,800 14C-BP provides a basis for discussing the variability of the lithic industries dated to the end of the Magdalenian and to the Federmesser-Gruppen phase. This paper will question behavioural homogeneity during this period according to typological, technological, and economic data. Based on the large time span covered by the dated settlements, we are able to present arguments with reference to a diachronic axis and to discuss the relevance of behavioural evolution of the Federmesser-Gruppen industries of the Central Rhineland, as this is documented for other geographic areas (Valentin 2008a; Mevel 2017). First results of the technological analyses have highlighted variations between sites in the patterns of blank production, the categories of lithic projectile implements made and used as well as in economic behaviour. The significance of these variations and their chronological and cultural value will be assessed. Finally, the homogeneity of the “Azilianisation” process will be discussed at a European scale based on a comparison with data from neighbouring areas.

Defining varying spatial and temporal analytical scales is essential before evaluating the responses of late Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens to Abrupt Environmental Transitions (AETs) and environmental disasters for the period 130-25 ka. Recent advances in addressing the population histories and interactions (using both genetic and archaeological evidence) of Neanderthals and H. sapiens have encouraged consideration of more subtle dynamics of archaeological change. Descriptions of change based on methodologies pioneered some 160 years ago are no longer adequate to explain the patterning we now see in the record. New chronological results, using multiple dating methods, allow us to begin to unpick the spatial and temporal scales of change. Isochronic markers (such as specific volcanic eruptions) can be used to create temporal frameworks (lattices), and results from other dating techniques compared against them. A combination of chronological lattices and direct dating of diagnostic artefacts and human fossils permits us, for the first time, to have greater confidence in connecting human (recent hominin) species and their behavioural responses to environmental conditions, and in quantifying scales of change over time and space (time-transgression). The timing of innovations, particularly those in bone, antler and ivory, can be directly quantified and tested, and used to re-evaluate longstanding models of cultural change. This paper also uses these new chronologies to explore the ecologies of late Neanderthals and early H. sapiens: their population densities, mobilities, resources exploited and possible interactions. Environmental productivity estimates are used to generate new questions of potential population densities and mobilities, and thus the sensitivity of these groups to environmental perturbations. Scales and intensities of effect on environments from natural disasters and AETs (notably Heinrich Events and the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption) are defined as a scale from “proximal” to “distal,” with local conditions (topographic shelter or exposure) serving to intensify or mitigate those effects.

At the last glacial maximum, the Gravettian human groups moved to southern European Peninsulas: Iberian, Italian, Balkan and the gulfs: Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, Aegean and around the Black Sea (a lake at this time). There, they differentiated: Solutrean in Western Europe, Epigravettian in Central Europe and in Eastern Europe. Human groups, constrained in their new southern territories, returned to a system of small territories and low mobility, which required them to change the food resource system (gregarious mammal hunting replacing migratory herd hunting), sources of raw material procurement (reuse of quartzite), and, as a result, technology (return to flake knapping, importance of lamellar knapping) and industry. This local opportunistic strategy involved territories of less than 1000 km 2 and low mobility. The climate variations of the last glacial maximum reveal two wetter episodes, clearly visible in the sequences of loess of Central and Eastern Europe and in non-anthropogenic records around 20 e19 000 BP and 18.5e17 000 BP. During these two episodes, human groups moved northward during the summer, in a seasonal mobility strategy, involving hunting of migratory animals and use of outcrops of good flint. These two systems existed during the last glacial maximum in Western, Central, and Eastern Europe, where, despite typological differences in assemblages, common characteristics may be highlighted.

Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period Chapter 4 The Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period I: Human Migrations and the Changing Climate Tjeerd H. van Andel, William Davies & Bernard Weninger for the Aurignacian + Early Upper Palaeolithic and Gravettian for the Gravettian + Upper Palaeolithic techno-complexes. Inevitably, we shall at times speak of Mousterians when we mean Neanderthals and carelessly call the earliest arriving modern humans Aurignacians and those of later date Gravettians. An anonymous reviewer of an earlier version of this chapter asked why we cast our study in terms of human species, thereby adding another speculative dimension to our work. The answer is that we are concerned with the behaviour of human beings belonging to two species and their responses to the ever-changing climate and landscape of the last glaciation; their stone tools are merely a means of labelling them. If we accept Mousterian lithics as proxies for the presence of the Neanderthals whose fate we wish to trace, we can draw on a much larger data set than if we limit ourselves to Neanderthal skeletal finds (cf. Tables 4.1 & 4.2). The Aurignacian, Gravettian and other, later lithic complexes reliably carry the flag for the newly arrived Anatomically Modern Humans. But in the end, when we consider the final question of the Stage 3 Project: ‘Why did the Neanderthals perish while Anatomically Modern Humans flourished?’ we shall propose hypotheses and explanations about people, not industrial complexes. We recognize that our tripartite scheme does not cover the full breadth and depth of human life in Europe during the last glaciation, but prefer not to participate here in discussions about the meaning and validity of the many subdivisions of each major industry that grace the columns of our data base. We do not question the cultural and historical significance of those sub-units, but in the context of this study with its long time and vast space to cover, their role is secondary and best left to subsequent studies. Tracking Neanderthals and Anatomically Modern Humans The Stage 3 chrono-archaeological data base lists most of the human skeletal material dates published up to December 2000. The finds derive from only a few sites (Table 4.1), but their pattern is consistent. With few exceptions, Neanderthal remains (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) are associated with Mousterian and Châtelperronian lithic industries, whilst Anatomically Modern Human bones (Homo sapiens sapiens) are accompanied by Aurignacian, Gravettian and other Early Upper and Upper Palaeolithic artefacts. A few somewhat doubtful Homo neanderthalensis? bones are not associated with lithics but, ignoring those, only three exceptions exist: Homo neanderthalensis is associated with an Upper Palaeolithic assemblage at Trou de l’Abîme and a few certain and some doubtful Neanderthal bones have been retrieved from Aurignacian strata at Vindija Cave and Bacho Kiro (Table 4.1). For our purposes the chrono-archaeological data base has provided time and space co-ordinates for two human species; the Neanderthals are represented by the Mousterian technocomplex, while the Aurignacian and Gravettian represent Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH). To the Aurignacian we must add the many sites labelled Early Upper Palaeolithic (EUP) and to the Gravettian Upper Palaeolithic (UP) as their chronologically equivalents. We are conscious of the many distinctions involved in those categories (van Andel et al. 2003), but in the broad overview of space and time we are aiming for here we must regard those distinctions as of secondary interest. Anyway, many of the lesser units have too few dated sites to be useful given our modus operandi which depends on large data sets. For convenience we use the term Aurignacian 31 Chapter 4 Zoning1 the record of Stage 3 climate changes Table 4.1. List of sites with dated human skeletal material. Age range, cal ka BP Total sites* H. neanderthalensis 24–37 38–44 45–59 60–66 67–74 36 22 50 8 7 H. sapiens sapiens 16–23 24–36 37–45 with H. neander. with H. neander.? 12 9 8 3 3 Total sites** 93 106 53 2 2 1 1 with H. sapiens with H. sapiens? 6 3 31 13 9 6 NOTES on questionable H. neanderthalensis Site Industry Species Ages, cal ka BP Salemas [algar] Columbeira, G. Nova Banyoles Jaurens Vergisson, La Falaise Trou de l’Abime Trou de l’Abime Feldhofer cave Vindija Cave Vindija Cave Vindija Cave Ohapa Ponor Cave Bacho Kiro Bacho Kiro Mousterian Mousterian ? ? FAUNA/?Neanderthal Middle Palaeolithic Upper Palaeolithic ? Aurignacian Aurignacian? ? Mousterian Bachokirian Aurignacian 6 H. neander.? 6 H. neander.? 1 H. neander.? 4 H. neander. 1 H. neander.? 2 H. neander. 1 H. neander. 2 H. Neander. 1 H. neander.? 2 H. neander.? 4 H. neander. 1 H. neander.? 4 H. neander.? 1 H. neander.? 24, 28, 28, 28, 31, 34 30, 33, 36, 54, 61, 101 45 33, 33, 34, 37 33 29, 57 30 45, 48 30, 31 30, 38, 45 32, 33, 46, 51 44 39, 42, 43, 59 33 * Mousterian and Chatelperronian sites. ** Aurignacian, Gravettian, Early Upper and Upper Palaeolithic sites. Aurignacian Bachokirian Bohunician Châtelperronian Early Upper Palaeolithic Gravettian Magdalenian Middle Palaeolithic Mousterian Solutrean Szeletian Uluzzian Upper Palaeolithic N dates N sites 361 5 7 36 99 386 25 13 303 31 15 5 90 88 3 2 13 20 93 19 5 98 12 7 3 24 Relief and palaeoclimate For its size Europe has a remarkably diverse geography dominated by west–east trending trans-European mountain ranges that start with the Pyrenees and Alps and at about 15°E longitude divide into a northern Carpathian branch and the southeasterly trending Dinarides extending into western Greece. Between them the two branches embrace the Hungarian lowland traversed by the Danube which, having passed the Iron Gates, enters a large alluvial plain before it reaches the Black Sea. It was almost certainly one or even the main age-old highway from the Near East to western Europe. The trans-European ranges have elevations of up to two or three thousand metres and form a major climatic barrier shielding the Mediterranean region with its intricate arrays of islands, peninsulas and mountains from the nordic weather. Reduced to such simplicity the geography of Europe is familiar to all, but the main features should be kept in mind lest we fall, albeit only mentally, in the trap that has caught many a modeller whose techniques were suited best to a table-top surface (e.g. Bocquet-Appel & Demars 2000a,b; Zubrow Table 4.2. Summary of number of dates and sites with their age ranges1 (after Table 3.2); industries used in this chapter are shown in bold italics. Questionable limits shown with ?. Lithic industries In this chapter we track human migrations through time and across Europe, using time-slice maps and time graphs to determine the degree to which their wanderings may have been direct or indirect responses to the changing climate. For this purpose we compare the icecore climate record (Meese et al. 1997; Johnsen et al. 2001; Stuiver & Grootes 2000) with dated sites from the chronological data base. Because calibration ranges (SDcal) of the archaeological dates extend from less than ±500 to more than ±2500 years (Table 3.4), matching Palaeolithic time-slices with Dansgaard/Oeschger oscillations is not possible. Instead, we have subdivided the GISP2 ice-core record into climate sub-units (Fig. 4.1; Table 4.3) of longer durations that enable us to exploit archaeological time-slices of the same order of magnitude. Age range* ka** BP 23,000–47,000 41,000–42,000 43,000–47,000 28,000–43,000 26,000–41,000 21,000–38,000 20,000***–28,000 30,000–45,000 23,000?–108,000 21,000–26,000 37,000–45,000 31,000–37,000 24,000–31,000 * Ranges from the Stage 3 chrono-archaeological data base. ** In calendar ka (1000) BP. *** Lower limit of data set is 20 ka BP. 32 Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period 18 1992). In Chapter 11 (Davies et al. warm 2003) we return in more detail to the relations between topography, climate and early human settlement. North of the trans-European mountain range and bordering the Fennoscandian ice margin is the North European Plain which in glacial times began on the dry bed of the fully emerged North cold Glacial LGM cold Early glacial warm Trans. E cold Trans. Stable warm max. Sea. The Low Countries are part OIS-2 OIS-3 OIS-5c OIS-5b OIS-5a OIS-4 of this plain and so is northern Germany where it gradually widAge (ka BP) ens as it forms the lowlands of Poland and the Russian plain, Figure 4.1. Second- and third-order (Dansgaard/Oescher) climate phases beending at the Urals. Its northern tween the late penultimate interglacial (OIS-5d) and the onset of the Holocene boundary is often thought to have (OIS-1) as reflected in the δ18O climate record from the GISP2 ice core (Meese et been the edge of the Fenno- al. 1997; Johnsen et al. 2001; Stuiver & Grootes 2000). Climate phases as in scandian ice sheet, located south Table 4.3. The broken heavy line depicts the general trend of the OIS-3/OIS-2 of the southern Baltic shore climate changes. throughout the entire last glaciation. The ice sheet Table 4.3. Second-order climate phases of the Weichselian probably reached the northern Baltic shore during Glaciation between OIS-5a and OIS-1, based on the GISP2 Greenland ice core and used to place middle and late Palaeolithic its first maximum (OIS-4) and again during the Late human history in a climatic context. Glacial Maximum (LGM) when it extended deep into northern Germany, the Baltic countries and SPECMAP Climate phase Age (ka BP) northernmost Poland. For the 35,000 years between OIS-5a Early Glacial Warm Phase >74 the two glacial maxima, however, the ice sheet was OIS-4 Transitional Phase 74–66 much reduced and during OIS-3 may have been limOIS-4 First Glacial Maximum 66–59 OIS-3 Stable Warm Phase 59–44 ited to local ice-caps covering the highest peaks of OIS-3 Transitional Phase 44–37 southern Norway (Arnold et al. 2002; Olsen 1997; OIS-3 Early Cold Phase 37–27 Olsen et al. 1996; 2001a,b; Sveian et al. 2001). In northOIS-2 Last Glacial Maximum 27–16 eastern Russia during the Briansk Interstade (33–24 uncal 14C b.p. or about 36–26 ka BP2) forest tundra, periglacial forest-tundra and periglacial forest-steppe is largely a function of topography (Barron et al. landscapes occupied the region between 55° and 65°N 2003). lat. rather then an ice sheet. This region contains many Palaeolithic sites which render it likely — but Shifting patterns of human occupation: 70–20 ka BP2 not yet prove (Larsson 1999) — that in Scandinavia too humans hunted at higher latitudes than the usuThe Neanderthals in Europe during the last glaciation ally accepted 55°N limit. The temporal and spatial record of the three main The late Pleistocene climate of Europe was techno-complexes on which our review of the demarked by two continental-scale trends, the north– cline and extinction of the Neanderthals and the south gradient from arctic to cold temperate condientry and expansion of modern humans rests retions north of the trans-European mountain barrier veals clear parallels but also some striking differand the west–east transition from the maritime Atences. lantic to the continental climate of the plains of The fairly continuous Mousterian record (Fig. easternmost Europe (Barron et al. 2003). The trans4.2) begins more than 70,000 years ago in early OIS-4 European mountain barrier was the protector of the (c. 74 ka BP), well before the onset of the first ice milder climate in the northern Mediterranean region advance of the last glaciation at ~65 ka BP. The early from eastern Iberia to Turkey. Dominated by sharp part of the record is dominated by U/Th series, TL/ contrasts between high country and the sea, the reOSL and ESR and some questionable 14C dates, all gion displays a complex mosaic of climate zones that with large SDcal ranges, and has a low resolution. O 33 Chapter 4 years, features 12 dated sites, all situated south of 45°N latitude (Fig. 4.3a:top) in the Mediterranean and southern France of which six go back another 10–20 ka BP; the 67 ka BP date from Temnata is questionable. Time-slices of the Mousterian site distribution in Europe (Figs. 4.3a–d) give considerable detail about the Mousterian geography. See Appendices 4.1–4.3 for site lists by industry and time-slice. The human presence as expressed by dated sites remained low until an abrupt warming around 59 ka ago started the longest warm period within the entire Weichselian glaciation. The recovery from the OIS-4 glacial advance initiated a rich final Neanderthal floruit during the long mild interval of early OIS-3 time, and human activity, as measured by the number of sites per millennium, expanded drastically. A brief decline around 53–49 ka BP may reflect temporary cold-dry steppe conditions which are recorded at Monticchio in Italy (Allen et al. 2000) and elsewhere, but the climate curve soon rose again. The time-slices of 59–48 ka (Fig. 4.3a:bottom) and 47–43 ka BP (Fig. 4.3b:top) which together encompass the Stable Warm Phase display a settlement pattern very different from that of OIS-4. In the northern Mediterranean, the number of sites quickly doubled and a vigorous expansion in western, central and eastern Europe and the Crimea and into northern latitudes is clear, but few dated site lie north of 50°N (Pavlov & Indrelid 1999; Pavlov et al. 2001). The pattern (Fig. 4.3a:bottom) suggests that the re-colonization of central and western Europe may have come from the east up the great river systems of the Danube, Main and Rhine, a pattern also implied during the 47–43 ka BP time-slice (Fig. 4.3b:bottom). There is also a suggestion that the postOIS-4 colonization of north-central and eastern Europe came from points farther east — perhaps from the Crimea and the northeastern Black Sea coast — and moved along the lower and middle courses of the large Ukrainian rivers. Here too few sites are near or beyond the 50°N parallel, the apparent northern limit of Neanderthal expansion in Europe until c. 40 ka BP. At about 42 ka BP, the transition towards the Early Cold Phase began with a few thousand years of unstable climate conditions, but there was hardly any decrease in the number of Neanderthal sites. The 42–38 ka time-slice (Fig. 4.3b:bottom) shows a human retreat away from the North European Plain towards southern France, as well as an eastward retreat to the Ukraine and to southeastern Russia where Neanderthals still flourished. A single openair site at 53°N, 34°E (Betovo: Soffer 1989, 724) points Age Mousterian 30 40 50 60 70 ka BP 0 sites/ka 10 Figure 4.2. The Neanderthal (Mousterian) temporal record in Europe, 70–25 ka BP, presented as five-point running average of the number of sites per millennium plotted against their age in thousands of years (ka) BP. Even so it parallels the broad trends of the climatic record (Fig. 4.1). The OIS-4 glacial maximum, lasting a mere 5000 34 Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period Mousterian Figure 4.3a. The changing Neanderthal (Mousterian) settlement pattern in Europe by time-slices. Top: 70–60 ka BP; bottom 59–47 ka BP. Sites are marked with black dots. Due to the map scale (diameter of black dots = ≈28 km) not all sites may show separately. 35 Chapter 4 Mousterian Figure 4.3b. The changing Neanderthal (Mousterian) settlement pattern in Europe by 5-ka time-slices. Top: 46–43 ka bottom: 42–38 ka BP. Sites are marked with black dots. Due to the map scale (diameter of black dots = ≈28 km) not all sites may show separately. BP; 36 Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period Mousterian Figure 4.3c. The changing Neanderthal (Mousterian) settlement pattern in Europe by 4-ka time-slices. Top: 37–34 ka BP; bottom: 33–30 ka BP. Sites are marked with black dots. Due to map scale (diameter of black dots = ≈28 km) not all sites may show separately. 37 Chapter 4 Mousterian Figure 4.3d. The changing Neanderthal (Mousterian) settlement pattern in Europe by 4-ka time-slices. Top: 29–26 ka bottom: 25–22 ka BP. Sites are marked with black dots. Due to the map scale (diameter of black dots = ≈28 km) not all sites may show separately. BP; 38 Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period Age to continued interest in the arctic. In central Europe north of the Alps only a few long-occupied sites remained and many sites there and in eastern France were abandoned. The steady deterioration of the climate towards the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) which began about 37 ka ago was accompanied by a gradual contraction of the Neanderthal presence (Fig. 4.3c:top) and the slow withdrawal from central Europe became total a little later (Fig. 4.3c:bottom). The Neanderthal realm was thus reduced to two disconnected regions, a western one in France with a small northernmost foothold in the Ardennes, and an eastern one in the Crimea and along the northeastern Black Sea shore; 4–6 sites continued to be occupied there until 30 ka ago. The 29–26 and 25–22 ka BP maps (Fig. 4.3d) show that the whole of Europe east of c. 10°E as well as the Black Sea region were deserted. For a while a few sites continued to be occupied in southern and south-central France and on the Atlantic coast of Portugal; but then it was over. A few ‘Mousterian’ dates range down to 25 ka BP, but whether those sites were occupied by Neanderthals or reflect errors in cultural assignment or dating is unclear. Thus the final demise of the Neanderthals, between 32 and perhaps 28 ka ago, came well before the onset of the peak of the LGM around 25–23 ka BP, suggesting that its cause lay elsewhere than with the severely cold climate. 20 Aurignacian 30 40 0 10 20 10 20 20 Points of note • A clear parallelism between Neanderthal movements and climate changes. Evidence: • A rapid spread across the Mediterranean and throughout Europe south of the 50°N parallel when the long Stable Warm Phase began. • A two-pronged withdrawal westward to the Atlantic shores and southeastward to the Black Sea; perhaps a response to the final climate deterioration after 37 ka BP. • A Neanderthal re-entry into central Europe from the southeast up the Danube–Main–Rhine system is suggested by the site pattern, but the dates do not suffice to imply a point of origin and the direction. • Sparse archaeological exploration may be the cause of the apparent southeastward Neanderthal withdrawal, but might also be due to deteriorating climate conditions and dwindling food resources on the Russian plain. Gravettian 30 ka BP 0 sites/ka Figure 4.4. The temporal records of Anatomically Modern Humans (Aurignacian + EUP and Gravettian + UP) in Europe, 45–20 ka BP, presented as 5-point running averages of the number of sites per millennium plotted against age in ka BP. mans (Fig. 4.4) differs from that of the Neanderthals, but their spatial pattern is rather similar (Roebroeks et al. 1992). The rising part of the Aurignacian temporal curve could well describe an unconfined population increase which, starting slowly before 40 ka BP, accelerated until it levelled off around 30 ka BP, perhaps due to external forces such as pressure from other populations, resource limitations and/or envi- Arrival and early dispersal of modern humans The temporal history of Anatomically Modern Hu39 Chapter 4 Geissenklösterle (#7) and on the Meuse River Trou Magritte (#5) and Trou al’Wesse (#6) indeed mark a plausible route up the Danube river system and across by way of the River Main valley to the Rhine and thence into northwestern Europe. This is the same path that palaeontologists have widely accepted as been taken by hippopotamus and other eastern warm-climate animals when repeatedly repopulating the Thames valley during successive interglacials. Far away from this trail across central Europe are four sites isolated in coastal Spain of which two, Castillo (#1) and l’Arbreda (#3), have long date sequences. Iberia was readily accessible across the Straits of Gibraltar which was only about 20 km wide when the sea stood at –70 m to –80 m during Stage 3 (Shackleton et al. 1984). Thus, from a strictly geographic point of view, a western addition to the traditional entry from the southeast seems worth considering (cf. Straus 1996, 212). More dates from northern Africa and earlier dates from southern Iberia — there the earliest Aurignacoid assemblages, such as Pego do Diabo and Gorhams Cave, only date to c. 30 ka BP — are needed in order to take the hypothesis of a western entry further. The Aurignacian expansion began slowly around 42 ka BP (Fig. 4.5a:bottom). The result was a widely scattered, open site pattern with clusters in a few areas such as the Dordogne and the Ardennes and along the north coast of Spain. During the next two time-slices (Fig. 4.6b) the number of sites increased considerably (Table 4.5), but the pattern did hardly change until the Aurignacian reached its peak around 33–30 ka BP (Fig. 4.6b:bottom) with 48 sites. At the same time, the number of sites in the Mediterranean increased by half (Fig. 4.b:bottom), perhaps in an initial response to the worsening climate. Also at this time a fine-scale clustering, almost entirely absent earlier, is revealed by the fact that the number of sites visible on the maps is significantly smaller than the total number recorded for the timeslice (Table 4.5), because the dots marking the sites have a diameter of c. 28 km and so can conceal more than one sites. Although several clusters are openair sites where excavation practice raise the number of closely-spaced but separately-named sites, most clusters appears to be real and deliberate. This raises the question whether these dense site complexes might have exhausted the supply of food and thereby contributed to the decline in numbers after 30 ka BP. Whatever was the reason, the Aurignacian withdrawal to southern France and sites in Iberia is reminiscent of the earlier response by Mousterians to an increasingly severe climate (Fig. 4.4b). The number Table 4.4. The earliest settlements of Anatomically Modern Humans in Europe with oldest dates. Only dates with SDcal <±2500 years are listed. Age ka BP Map* Site 43 44 45 46 47 >50 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Castillo Abric Romani L’Arbreda Reclau viver Trou Magritte Trou al Wesse Das Geissenklösterle Willendorf II Grotte di Paine Abri Fumane Istallósko Temnata Kostienki I (EUP) x x x x x x x x x x xx x x 51 x x x x x x x 54 x * Map number (differs from site numbers from the archaeo-chronological data base. Note: Oldest dates of sites 5 and 6 are separated from later ones by several thousand years and hence questionable. Table 4.5. Time-slices by techno-complexes: numbers of sites: actual and on maps (Figs. 4.4, 4.7 & 4.9). Time-slice Mousterian Aurignacian+EUP Gravettian+UP ka BP actual map actual map actual map 25–22 29–26 33–30 37–34 42–38 46–43 59–47 70–60 6 4 18 13 27 32 31 12 5 4 17 37 26 32 26 11 7 34 48 36 32 13 7 30 40 31 29 13 52 66 39 6 41 54 30 5 ronmental stress. Where and when did this growth start and how and why did the newly arrived species spread across Europe until it stabilized? Twenty-two oldest dates are available for the Aurignacian and Early Upper Palaeolithic technocomplex if we discard those with SDcal ranges of >±2500 ka as too vague and ages above 50 ka as improbable (Table 4.4). The 22 dates, derived from 13 sites (Fig. 4.5a) suggest that the entry of modern humans began as early as 47 ka BP. Those early sites spread thinly across Europe and until the 33–30 ka BP time-slice their increase was slow (Fig. 4.5b). In the tradition of Ex Oriente Lux the origin of European modern humans has generally been sought in the Near and Middle East (Garrod 1936; Mellars & Stringer 1989; Mellars 1992; Davies 2001). This implies entry across European Turkey or from the Black Sea region and six of the earliest sites (Fig. 4.5a:top), Temnata (#12), Istallósko (#11), Willendorf (#8), 40 Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period Aurignacian+EUP 13 5 6 7 8 11 10 9 1 12 4 2 3 Figure 4.5a. The changing early modern human (Aurignacian+EUP) settlement pattern in Europe shown by 5-ka time-slices. Top: 47–43 ka BP; bottom: 42–38 ka BP. Top (oldest) sites are marked with numbered black dots; see Table 4.4 for names and ages. Due to the map scale (diameter of black dots = ≈28 km) not all sites may show separately. 41 Chapter 4 Aurignacian+EUP Figure 4.5b. The changing early modern human (Aurignacian+EUP) settlement pattern in Europe shown by 4-ka time-slices. Top: 37–34 ka BP; bottom: 32–30 ka BP. Sites are marked with black dots. Due to the map scale (diameter of black dots = ≈28 km) not all sites may show separately. 42 Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period Aurignacian+EUP Figure 4.5c. The changing early modern human (Aurignacian+EUP) settlement pattern in Europe shown by 4-ka time-slices. Top: 29–26 ka BP; bottom: 25–22 ka BP. Sites are marked with black dots. Due to the map scale (diameter of black dots = ≈28 km) not all sites may show separately. 43 Chapter 4 humans who entered Europe about 20,000 years earlier, but the evidence is ambiguous. At any rate, whether the Aurignacian came to an end 30,000 years ago or during the 22–25 ka time-slice, it concluded a very long period of slow but steady development. Age 20 Points of note • The dispersal of earliest Aurignacian sites up the Danube River into northwestern Europe supports the view that modern humans entered Europe from the east and probably migrated up the Danube and down the Main and Rhine. • Four of the oldest Aurignacian sites are in Spain and, being distant from the Danube trail across Europe, their founders may have entered across the Straits of Gibraltar, a possibility worth evaluating. • The migrations of early modern humans and late Neanderthals during the late ‘Stable Warm’ and ‘Transitional’ climate phases (45–37 ka BP) show very similar preferences in terms of climate zones. • This raises the question whether Neanderthals and early modern humans both were highly adapted to temperate or boreal resources with essentially sedentary animal resources and thereby became incapable of adjusting to a subarctic or arctic mode of living with its forced seasonal mobility. 30 40 Aurignacian+Gravettian ka BP 0 10 20 30 sites/ka Figure 4.6. Aurignacian and Gravettian temporal records combined. Number of sites per millennium plotted against age in ka BP. A five-point running average was applied to smooth minor irregularities. of sites began to decrease during the 29–26 ka BP interval and a population divide developed between western and eastern Europe (Fig. 4.5c:top). The now empty region between 5°E and 20°E separated two strikingly different terrains. To the west lie the coastal plains of the Low Countries, the rolling hills of northern France, the Massif Central and the rocky coast of northern Iberia, all having a marked maritime climate (Barron et al. 2003). In contrast, the central and northeastern region, north to the Baltic shore and southeast to the milder coastal zone of the Black Sea, was a vast plain with a continental climate. The apparent southward withdrawal of the Aurignacians (Fig. 4.5c:top) has two exceptions. A small number of sites in the Ardennes which may have served as a winter refuge (Davies et al. 2000) long remained occupied in an otherwise empty region. A similar cluster persisted between about 20°E and 30°E just south of the 50th parallel in the Ukrainian and Russian plain. The final time-slice (25–22 ka BP) covers the early part of the Last Glacial Maximum Phase when the edge of the Fennoscandian ice sheet had crossed the Baltic and was advancing into the North European Plain until it halted at about 52°–53°N. The seven dated Aurignacian sites in the plain may have housed direct descendants of the earliest wave of modern A high-glacial focus on north-central and northeastern Europe The time curve of the later modern humans (Gravettian+UP: Fig. 4.4) is based on 368 14C and AMS dates with SDcal ranges of <±1500 years. The curve is truncated at the limit of our data base at 20 ka BP, but its nearly linear rising limb also looks curiously artificial. If we sum the Gravettian+UP and Aurignacian+EUP curves (Fig. 4.6), however, rapid population growth appears to begin again after the shoulder that marks the stabilization of the early Aurignacian expansion at 36–34 ka BP. Contrary to the Mousterian and Aurignacian temporal curves which declined as the climate deteriorated, the Gravettian rise led to a second plateau at 30–25 ka BP and reached its maximum at c. 25 ka BP (Fig. 4.1) during the severe climate of the early LGM before it comes to its artificial cut-off. Two explanations come to mind. The Gravettian expansion may have been due to indigenous development: adoption of a new technology, new social systems or hunting strategies which singly or in combination compensated for the rising climatic stress by encouraging appropriate adaptations. Hunting a 44 Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period full-glacial arctic fauna (Stewart et al. 2003; Musil 2003) may have opened up new opportunities and new territories. Alternatively, the expansion may have been due to the arrival of vigorous newcomers (Richards et al. 2000; Gibbons 2000) from elsewhere who, equipped with major technical and/or social advantages provided new adaptations to the highglacial conditions. The six earliest Gravettian sites, Höhle Fels and Dolní Vestonice in central Europe, Temnata in Bulgaria and Mezmaiskaya and two Kostienki sites in Russia (Fig. 4.7a:top) range in age from 38 to 35 ka BP. Their distribution tells us little concerning the provenance of the techno-complex except that it might have emerged north and northeast of the trans-European mountain barrier amongst a swarm of Aurignacian sites (Fig. 4.5b) or it might have had a more distant eastern provenance, perhaps in the region of the Kostienki and Mezmaiskaya sites in Russia. The next time-slice (33–30 ka BP: Fig. 4.7a:bottom) shows 39 Gravettian sites north of the 45th parallel scattered amongst 48 Aurignacian sites (Table 4.5; Fig. 4.5b:bottom) from the Atlantic shores to the Russian plain, with only four dated human sites in northern Iberia and two in Italy. This pattern suggests a local origin from Aurignacian roots in central Europe, perhaps in Moravia (Svoboda et al. 1996; 1999). In marked contrast to the preference for midlatitudinal and southern climates of the Neanderthals and early modern humans, the Gravettian and Upper Palaeolithic populations, while not wholly averse to lands south and east of the Bay of Biscay or Italy, clearly had mastered life in the foreland north of the Pyrenees and Alps from east the Ardennes to the 15°E meridian and in the Northern European Plain. In Russia six sites west of the Urals at locations beyond 50°N (Pavlov & Indrelid 1999, fig. 1; Pavlov et al. 2001) span the Early Cold Phase when there was probably no major Fennoscandian ice sheet yet (Arnold et al. 2002; Olsen 1997). These sites suggest continuous occupation from 40 ka BP at the Mamontovaya site (66°N: 37,360±970 14C yr b.p.) to 27 ka BP at Byzovaya (62°N: 25,540±380 14C yr b.p.) with a gap at the acme of the LGM. Settlement in this region resumed from 20 ka BP at the Medvezhya site (62°N: 20,072±180 14C yr b.p.) to late sites at Pymva Shore I around 12 ka BP (67°N: 11,460±80 14C yr b.p.). The sites are found in a forest-tundra-steppe landscape (Markova et al. 2002). In Scandinavia mammalian skeletal material from later Stage 3 suggests similar landscapes, but no human sites are (yet?) known there (Larsson 1999). Between 29 and 26 ka BP the number of Gra- vettian+UP sites nearly doubled to 66 (Fig. 4.7b:top) but except for a few sites in Iberia and Italy and two in the Balkans the techno-complex is confined to Europe north of the trans-European mountain barrier even during OIS-2, the Last Glacial Maximum (Fig. 4.7b:bottom). On the maps the sites appear to be widely spaced except for a cluster in the Dordogne and another in the Ukraine. Table 4.5 shows that about forty per cent of all sites must be hidden underneath the black dots within 30 km of one or more others. No such concealment has afflicted the Mousterian and Aurignacian+EUP sites. This is particularly striking in central Europe north of the mountains where the three major sites of Pavlov, Milovice and Dolní Vêstonice, often regarded as permanent settlements with sizeable populations, are in such close proximity that it seems unlikely that the local fauna could have sustained them for more than a very short time. Perhaps they were permanent winter quarters to which summer populations of sites farther north in the tundra seasonally returned or might it be that the conservation practices of, for instance, the Northwest Pacific Indians who rotated their exploitation between a few years of hunting and many years of recovery has deep roots in time? Unlike the Aurignacian abandonment of Europe north of the trans-European mountain barrier after 30 ka BP in favour of lands in the southwest of France and the Black Sea region, the Gravettians, although liking Atlantic France, show a much stronger and more persistent preference for the North European and Russian plains. While roughly limited to the 50th parallel in western and central Europe, well south of the Fennoscandian ice sheet margin, their sites reach up to 67°N in the great Russian plain. The central European alpine foreland, at one time thinly populated by Neanderthals and/or Aurignacians, now was well settled, mainly along river courses and in particular in the region of Moravia. Our view that Gravettian humans preferred the north and largely abandoned the Mediterranean and the Balkans, conflicts with an elegant paper by Margherita Mussi (1999). Mussi’s goal was in principle the same as ours, viz. to set Gravettian history in the context of severe climatic deterioration, but in this case in Italy. However, while we rely on a climatic and human history limited strictly to space and time data, her approach is traditional, exploiting with considerable success a rich hoard of climatic, chronological, stratigraphic, artefactual and cultural information. A brief comparison of the two 45 Chapter 4 Gravettian+UP Figure 4.7a. The changing later modern human (Gravettian+UP) settlement pattern in Europe shown by time-slices. Top: 5-ka time-slice, 38–34 ka BP; bottom: 4-ka time-slice, 33–30 ka BP. Due to the map scale (diameter of black dots = ≈28 km) not all sites may show separately. 46 Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period Gravettian+UP Figure 4.7b. The changing later modern human (Gravettian+UP) settlement pattern in Europe shown by 4-ka timeslices. Top: 29–26 ka BP; bottom: 25–22 ka BP. Due to the map scale (diameter of black dots = ≈28 km) not all sites may show separately. 47 Chapter 4 southeastern Europe and the Mediterranean. • This raises the question whether the Gravettian expansion was due to local technical and social developments suitable as adaptations to specialised arctic hunting or, alternatively, was introduced by immigrants from the East. • A closely related question asks why the population density in Iberia, Italy and Greece was so low during the interval 30–20 ka BP compared to the earlier Stage 3, since dating or exploration biases can probably not be held responsible in this case. ways of attacking the problem reveals the strengths and weaknesses of each approach. For the interval 30,000–20,000 14C years Mussi lists 30 Italian sites, including four clusters of two to six sites while the others are widely scattered across the country (Mussi 1999, fig. 1). Her set of sites includes nine for which no dates are given (do dates exist?), three dated sites missing from our own data base (Arene candide with four dates and Fosso di Pagliano and Cala delle Ossa with one date each) and five sites which our own data base regards as Aurignacian. For the same region and interval we have seven dated sites. Converting Mussi’s 14C years into calendar dates enables us to sort the combined set of dated Italian sites into three time-slices with the following result (numbers in () are from Appendix 3): 33–30 ka BP: 2 (2); 29–26 ka BP: 6 (5) and 25–22 ka BP: 6 (3) sites. Comparison with the total number of European Gravettian sites in each of the time-slices of 39, 66 and 52 sites makes Mussi’s proposed exodus to the south seem modest indeed. This does not detract from the value of Mussi’s paper, because the differences between Mussi’s way and our own in placing the Gravettian in a climatic context are interesting. Having chosen an interval long enough to include undated sites, Mussi has woven a rich history of human retreat southward that demonstrates the strength of a broad-based regional overview, but fails to capture the continental Gravettian decline as the climate grew severe. Our ability to define changes in settlement pattern in response to millennial-scale climate changes for the whole of Europe, on the other hand, provides a useful perspective to judge the importance of a regional exodus to Italy. Other studies that would allow similar comparisons are Hahn (1999), Scheer (1999) and Bosinski (1999) which stress the importance of a riverine component. Street & Terberger’s (2000) highresolution study of the German Upper Palaeolithic is similar in intend but introduces a level of analysis well beyond that attempted here. Summary and perspective Two characteristics of the modus operandi of Palaeolithic archaeology that continue to the present day are the local or modestly regional focus and the use of largely intuitive palaeo-environmental settings. Sedimentology and palynology have exerted a disproportionate influence on studies concerned with a local or regional environmental context (e.g. Laville et al. 1980, passim), but a severe shortage of absolute dates continues to be a major handicap. Other attempts have suffered from an injudicious mixture of old and new concepts. While some authors have tried to marry the traditional ‘Weichsel/Würm’ stadials and interstadials to the oxygen isotope SPECMAP sequence (e.g. Rigaud 1999; Churchill & Smith 2000), others, like Guthrie & van Kolfschoten (1999), Street & Terberger (1999) or Sánchez-Goñi & d’Errico (2001) have used SPECMAP by itself, with varying levels of inference about the relevance of Greenland ice cores with regard to regions of Europe distant from the western maritime zone (van Andel 2003). The Stage 3 Project has ab initio claimed the whole of Europe as its territory, the time from the first glacial advance (OIS-4) to the LGM as its interval and as its aim the human occupation in time and space to the degree that they are represented by dated archaeological sites. Unlike the thoughtful reviews of the European middle and late Palaeolithic, for instance by Mellars (1996), Mellars & Stringer (1989) or Svoboda et al. (1996) and papers in Roebroeks et al. (1999 passim), our approach has armed us with coherent geographic and climatic targets which, on a macro-scale, possess broadly defined boundaries. Below we list some of our observations that we believe have merit and would benefit from further study in the light of independent palaeoenvironmental data and climate simulations assembled by the Stage 3 Project and others. Points of note • The earliest dated Gravettian sites are thinly scattered across Europe, offering no hint to their point of origin. • A striking feature of the 33–20 ka BP interval, equivalent to half the Early Cold Phase and LGM combined, is the large increase of the number of sites north of the trans-European mountain barrier, especially in the centre of the region. In contrast, dated upper Palaeolithic sites are rare in 48 Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period We do not present our work as a new or necessarily better way of doing things, but as an alternative overview that will add to the sum of our archaeological understanding. We do not pretend that all our questions are novel or profound, nor that our tentative explanations are all correct, but hope that some of both will be stimulating at least. We also recognize that our approach, as everything in life, has its price; as alternative explanations are devised and refined until rigorous multiple working hypotheses can be constructed, meso-scale data and meso-scale studies must increasingly take over the primary role from our macro-scale approach. That task and its rewards are beyond the scope of the Stage 3 Project and rest in the hands of others. • The great increase of Gravettian sites north of the trans-European mountain barrier as well as the ultimately near-total withdrawal from southeastern Europe and the Mediterranean. Variations in human responses to the changing climate • Question: Are the responses to climate changes of Neanderthals and early modern humans similar or different? • Evidence: • In terms of relief, latitude and proximity to the sea Mousterian and Aurignacian dispersal patterns seem similar. • The moves of Neanderthals and early modern humans during the late ‘Stable Warm’ and ‘Transitional’ climate phases are nearidentical. • Southward withdrawal patterns of Neanderthals and modern humans when the Late Glacial Maximum approached are similar. • Alternatively, given the small number of sites involved might the apparent southeastward withdrawal be a function of inadequate exploration? Questions, the evidence and some proposed explanations Origins and migration paths • Did the re-entry of the Neanderthals into Europe north of the 45°N parallel after OIS-4 come from southeastern Europe or from adjacent Asia? • Can the suggestion of the site patterns in eastern and central Europe that the modern human migration to northwestern Europe came by way of the Danube and Rhine drainages be confirmed by independent data? • The Danube–Main–Rhine–Thames path is widely thought to have carried repeated invasions of the interglacial large-mammal fauna, each followed by adaptation and eventual extinction. Might this be a suitable model for the history of middle to late Pleistocene hominids also? Direct and indirect impact of climate changes • Question: Are observed parallels between climate changes and human migration patterns due to direct impact of climate changes on humans or did the changes mainly affect the resources on which humans depended for survival? Relations between human dispersal patterns and climate • Question: Is there a relation between Neanderthal migration patterns and climate changes? • Evidence: • The parallelism between Neanderthal movements over time and climatic changes. • The rapid spread across Europe after OIS-4 during the next 20 millennia of mild stable climate. • The westward withdrawal to maritime France and southeasterly retreat to the Black Sea region after 40 ka BP when serious climate deterioration began. • Question: Is there a relation between the preferred environments of early modern humans and climate changes? • Evidence: • Aurignacian withdrawal west- and southeastward from c. 30 ka BP. The Neanderthal extinction • Question: Were Neanderthals and early modern humans both adapted to temperate or boreal food resources and incapable of adjusting to a subarctic or arctic mode of living? • Question: Given the many similarities listed above, why did Neanderthals and early modern humans not both perish near the LGM? Advanced adaptation • Question: Was the survival of Gravettian and other upper Palaeolithic humans due to successful adaptation to the climate deterioration towards the LGM, perhaps similar to the mode of arctic living akin still practised today. • Was this an internal regional development in the cold tundra and steppe between the Trans-European barrier and the advancing ice margin, or 49 Chapter 4 environments II: reconstructing the climate of Europe in the Last Glaciation, in Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape during the Last Glaciation, Chapter 5, eds. T.H. van Andel & W. Davies. (McDonald Institute Monographs.) Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 57–78. Bocquet-Appel, J.-P. & P.-Y. Demars, 2000a. Neanderthal contraction and modern human colonization of Europe. Antiquity 74, 544–52. Bocquet-Appel, J.-R. & P.-Y. Demars, 2000b. Population kinetics in the Upper Palaeolithic in Western Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science 27, 551–70. Bosinski, G. 1999. The period 30,000–20,000 bp in the Rhineland, in Hunters of the Golden Age: the Mid Upper Palaeolithic of Eurasia 30,000–20,000 BP, eds. W. Roebroeks, M. Mussi, J. Svoboda & K. Fennema. Leiden: Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 31, 271–80. Churchill, S.E. & F.H. Smith, 2000. Makers of the Early Aurignacian of Europe. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 4, 61–115. Davies, W., 2001. A very model of a modern human industry: new perspectives on the origins and spread of the Aurignacian in Europe. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 67, 195–217. Davies, W., J. Stewart & T.H. van Andel, 2000. Neandertal landscapes: a preview, in Neanderthals on the Edge, eds. C. Stringer, R.N.E. Barton & J.C. Finlayson. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 1–8. Davies, W., P. Valdes, C. Ross & T.H. van Andel, 2003. The human presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period III: site clusters, regional climates and resource attractions, in Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape during the Last Glaciation, Chapter 11, eds. T.H. van Andel & W. Davies. (McDonald Institute Monographs.) Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 191–220. Garrod, D., 1936. The Upper Palaeolithic in the light of recent discovery. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Presidential Address, Section H (Blackpool), 155–72. Gibbons, A., 2000. Evolutionary genetics, Europeans trace ancestry to Paleolithic people. Science 290, 1080–81. Guthrie, D. & T. van Kolfschoten, 1999. Neither warm and moist, nor cold and arid, the ecology of the Mid Upper Palaeolithic, in Hunters of the Golden Age: the Mid Upper Palaeolithic of Eurasia 30,000–20,000 BP, eds. W. Roebroeks, M. Mussi, J. Svoboda & K. Fennema. Leiden: Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 31, 13–20. Hahn, J., 1999. The Gravettian in southern Germany: environment and economy, in Hunters of the Golden Age: the Mid Upper Palaeolithic of Eurasia 30,000–20,000 BP, eds. W. Roebroeks, M. Mussi, J. Svoboda & K. Fennema. Leiden: Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 31, 249–56. Johnsen, S., D. Dahl-Jensen, N. Gundestrup, J. Steffensen, H. Clausen, H. Miller, V. Mason-Delmotte, A. did it arrive with new immigrants from the east as suggested, for instance, by Richards et al. (2000). Filling or not filling space • Question: Why are Mousterian and Aurignacian occupations of southeastern Europe and the Balkans so scattered, leaving regions such as the Hungarian and Danube plains or the southern Balkans so thinly occupied? • Question: Why was the population density in Iberia, Italy and Greece so low during the LGM compared to earlier times during Stage 3, or is this merely an artefact of inadequate exploration? • Question: While Mousterian and Aurignacian sites generally seem to have maintained a substantial (>30 km) distance from each other, why did the Upper Palaeolithic develop such strong clustering that one third of all sites were spaced less than a few tens of kilometre apart? Acknowledgements This chapter depends heavily on its numerous maps and we owe a debt of gratitude to Sharon Copan who patiently and painstakingly drew them and drew them again when we rememberd omissions and spotted mislocations. Notes 1. 2. 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Rapid adjust- 51 Chapter 4 East and West: the Palaeolithic of Moravia. New York (NY): Plenum Press. Svoboda, J., B. Klíma, L. Jarosová & P. Skrdla, 1999. The Gravettian in Moravia: climate, behaviour and technological complexity, in Hunters of the Golden Age: the Mid Upper Palaeolithic of Eurasia 30,000–20,000 BP, eds. W. Roebroeks, M. Mussi, J. Svoboda & K. Fennema. Leiden: Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 31, 197–218. van Andel, T.H., 2003. Glacial environments I: the Weichselian climate in Europe between the end of the OIS-5 interglacial and the Last Glacial Maximum, in Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape during the Last Glaciation, Chapter 2, eds. T.H. van Andel & W. Davies. (McDonald Institute Monographs.) Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 9–20. van Andel, T.H., W. Davies, B. Weninger & O. Jöris, 2003. 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A tale about the human diversity, in The Last Neandertals, the First Anatomically Modern Humans: Cultural Change and Human Evolution, the Crisis at 40 ka BP, eds. E. Carbonell & M. Vaquero. Tarragona: Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 203–18. Street, M. & T. Terberger, 1999. The German Upper Palaeolithic, 35,000–15,000 bp. New dates and insights with emphasis on the Rhineland, in Hunters of the Golden Age: the Mid Upper Palaeolithic of Eurasia 30,000–20,000 BP, eds. W. Roebroeks, M. Mussi, J. Svoboda & K. Fennema. Leiden: Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 31, 280–91. Stuiver, M. & P. Grootes, 2000. GISP2 oxygen isotope ratios. Quaternary Research 53, 277–84. Sveian, O.L., H. Bergstrøm, B. Selvik, S.F. Lauritzen, S.-E. Stokland & K. Grøsfjeld, 2001. Methods and stratigraphies used to reconstruct Mid- and Late Weichselian palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic changes in Norway. Norges geologiske undersøkelse Bulletin 438, 21–46. Svoboda, J., V. Lozel & E. Vlcek, 1996. Hunters Between 52 Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period Appendix 4.1. Sites used in this chapter: Mousterian. MOUSTERIAN Longitude Latitude 25–22 ka –9.192 38.894 4.837 44.889 4.542 44.3308 4.971 50.214 15.381 40.001 16.7372 49.4001 ID # Site # 38 584 764 1004 1292 1449 11 115 160 203 251 304 Site 6 sites Salemas [algar] A. Moula [Soyons] Gr. St-Marcel [d’Ardeche] [Bidon] Trou Magrite Gr. La Cala Kulna Cave 29–26 ka –9.192 4.213 6.139 4.542 38.894 44.412 47.608 44.3308 39 478 760 762 11 84 159 160 4 sites Salemas [algar] Les Pecheurs [Casteljau] Gr. d’Echenoz-la-Meline [La Baume] Gr. St-Marcel [d’Ardeche] [Bidon] 33–30 ka –8.4648 –9.192 –9.1932 –9.1932 –4.1267 3.769 1.223 1.848 5.4796 4.484 0.7167 4.542 0.872 4.2833 –2.6761 13.696 15.381 27.14 40.0034 39.6357 38.894 39.2998 39.2998 36.951 47.595 40.8084 44.716 46.4757 44.059 46.3833 44.3308 46.708 47.533 51.2263 47.611 40.001 47.943 44.2217 13 41 57 54 167 407 532 542 566 679 706 763 767 789 946 1169 1291 1618 1887 5 11 17 17 42 76 98 101 107 120 138 160 162 169 188 236 251 326 379 19 sites Caldeirao Cave Salemas [sima] Columbeira, Gruta Nova Columbeira, Gruta Nova Zafarraya Cave Grotte du Renne, Arcy-sur-Cure Combe Grenal [Domme] A du Mas Viel [St-Simon] Gr. de La Baume [Gigny sur Suran] A. Brugas [?O/A] [Vallabrix] L’Ermitage [Lussac-les-Chateaux] Gr. St-Marcel [d’Ardeche] [Bidon] A. Sabourin [Dousse] Montagne de Girault [Genay] Hyaena Den Salzofenhohle Gr. La Cala Ripiceni-Izvor Mezmaiskaya 37–34 ka –7.6431 –8.969 –8.5898 –8.5898 0.851 0.303 3.8685 4.971 15.875 25.514 34.396 34.0006 34.5987 39.6611 38.486 39.5307 39.5307 47.7 45.504 45.0615 50.214 46.169 45.977 45.16 44.8479 45.1224 8 9 23 26 422 452 700 1003 1381 1641 1700 1711 1717 3 4 6 7 78 81 135 203 280 331 338 340 341 13 sites Foz do Enxarrique Figueira Brava Cave Oliveira Cave [Almonda cave system] Almonda [EVS] Les Cottes [St. Pierre de Maille] La Quina Y-Z [Villebois la Valette] Les Rivaux [Espaly-St-Marcel] Trou Magrite Krapina Gura Cheii-Risnov Buran-Kaya III Kabazi II Zaskal’naya VI 42–38 ka 2.747 2.611 –3.4256 –0.506 0.851 0.303 1.223 4.837 1.249 5.551 2.8818 1.07 1.07 –2.6761 11.794 18.334 18.917 27.161 23.06 34.396 33.893 42.161 42.265 42.0735 45.747 47.7 45.504 44.8084 44.889 44.8673 45.885 43.3409 45.002 45.002 51.2263 48.931 47.633 47.379 48.125 45.293 45.16 44.744 154 163 194 390 423 453 533 583 606 719 749 797 798 944 1145 1414 1418 1553 1646 1699 1705 37 40 49 73 78 81 98 115 117 146 153 170 170 188 230 297 298 324 333 338 339 27 sites L’Arbreda Ermitons Cave Cueva Millan Roche a Pierrot [St.-Cesaire] Les Cottes [St. Pierre de Maille] La Quina Y-Z [Villebois la Valette] Combe Grenal [Domme] A. Moula [Soyons] Pech de l’Aze II [Carsac] Gr. de la Chenelaz [Hostias] Gr. Tournal Grande Grotte de Bize) Le Moustier Le Moustier Hyaena Den Sesselfelsgrotte Tata Erd Buzdujeni I Cave Cioarei/Borosteni Buran-Kaya III Starosel’e 53 Longitude Latitude ID # Site # 34.0006 44.8479 1710 340 34.5987 45.1224 1715 341 34.026 53.354 1757 356 38.542 44.839 1876 375 39.899 43.626 1885 378 40.0034 44.2217 1889 379 Site Kabazi II Zaskal’naya VI Betovo Il’skaya Vorontsov Cave Mezmaiskaya 47–43 ka –8.5898 –3.9555 1.676 2.747 –0.491 0.8699 –3.4256 –2.958 –5.3 1.223 1.249 4.836 0.5584 1.07 4.4295 5.046 9.772 11.794 15.237 11.565 13.1 13.508 16.767 18.502 18.917 16.7372 27.14 23.06 23.983 33.893 34.5987 38.542 40.0034 39.5307 43.2918 41.539 42.161 38.778 41.866 42.0735 43.402 36.133 44.8084 44.8673 44.891 44.866 45.002 44.4442 50.488 48.401 48.931 40.495 45.466 41.232 41.219 46.159 42.775 47.379 49.4001 47.943 45.293 43.196 44.744 45.1224 44.839 44.2217 24 128 134 156 161 178 193 197 253 534 604 686 731 796 803 1032 1049 1147 1236 1307 1330 1339 1361 1388 1416 1448 1615 1648 1697 1706 1716 1877 1888 6 35 36 37 39 45 49 52 67 98 117 126 149 170 172 209 215 230 247 258 266 267 275 285 298 304 326 333 337 339 341 375 379 33 sites Oliveira Cave [Almonda cave system] Castillo Abric Romani L’Arbreda Cova Beneito Roca dels Bous Cueva Millan Kurtzia Vanguard Cave Combe Grenal [Domme] Pech de l’Aze II [Carsac] [Gr.] Neron [Soyons] Barbas III [Creysse] Le Moustier Abri du Ranc de l’Arc [Lagorce] Sclayn Cave Das Geissenklosterle Sesselfelsgrotte Castelcivita Gr. del Broion Gr. Guattari Gr. di Sant’Agostino Divje Babe Crvena Stijena Erd Kulna Cave Ripiceni-Izvor Cioarei/Borosteni Samuilitsa Starosel’e Zaskal’naya VI Il’skaya Mezmaiskaya 59–47 ka –8.137 1.249 0.8699 –3.432 –2.619 0.3989 –5.3 –5.3 1.17 6.3833 1.728 1.249 4.621 0.6095 4.484 3.903 0.5584 1.07 9.772 11.409 11.794 1.249 1.249 11.88 13.1 11.565 18.917 1.249 27.14 38.5345 44.8673 41.866 37.438 42.2089 42.0189 36.133 36.133 45.055 47.4667 44.995 44.8673 43.832 45.341 44.059 43.943 44.866 45.002 48.401 51.828 48.931 44.8673 44.8673 42.966 41.232 45.466 47.379 44.8673 47.943 35 59 177 184 206 213 243 251 541 570 587 656 670 672 676 680 732 791 1052 1133 1143 1293 1306 1310 1326 1342 1415 1447 1617 10 17 45 47 54 59 65 67 100 108 116 117 118 119 120 121 149 170 215 225 230 251 258 259 266 267 298 304 326 31 sites Gruta do Escoural Columbeira, Gruta Nova Roca dels Bous Cariguela Pena Miel 1 Los Moros I [Gabasa] Gorham’s Cave Vanguard Cave Regourdou [Montignac] Gr. aux Ours [Gondenans les Moulins] La Chapelle-aux-Saints Pech de l’Aze II [Carsac] Ioton [Beaucaire] Fonseigner [Bourdeilles] A. Brugas [?O/A] [Vallabrix] La Roquette II [Conquerac] Barbas III [Creysse] Le Moustier Das Geissenklosterle Konigsaue Sesselfelsgrotte Gr. La Cala Gr. del Broion Gr. di Gosto Gr. Guattari Gr. di Sant’Agostino Erd Kulna Cave Ripiceni-Izvor Chapter 4 Appendix 4.1. (cont.) MOUSTERIAN Longitude Latitude ID # Site # 33.893 44.744 1704 339 27.1533 48.5613 1856 372 Site Starosel’e Korman’ IV 70–60 ka –9.1932 –3.9555 –5.3 1.223 12 sites Columbeira, Gruta Nova Castillo Gorham’s Cave Combe Grenal [Domme] 39.2998 43.2918 36.133 44.8084 55 132 246 528 17 35 65 98 Longitude Latitude ID # Site # –5.3 36.133 250 67 1.249 44.8673 663 117 4.484 44.059 674 120 2.7005 43.3534 685 125 7.049 43.705 688 127 13.1 41.232 1334 266 13.485 41.236 1346 268 24.088 43.175 1668 336 Site Vanguard Cave Pech de l’Aze II [Carsac] A. Brugas [?O/A] [Vallabrix] [Gr.] Aldene [Cesseras] Pie[d] Lombard [Tourrettes-sur-Loup] Gr. Guattari Gr. dei Moscerini Temnata Cave Appendix 4.2. Sites used in this chapter: Aurignacian and Early Upper Palaeolithic. AURIGNACIAN + EUP Longitude Latitude ID # Site # 25–22 ka –4.837 43.42 203 53 1 44.933 272 69 –0.506 45.747 380 73 4.542 43.95 470 83 8.137 50.421 1130 224 28.97 47.847 1537 321 25.936 47.022 1634 328 Site 7 sites La Riera Abri Pataud Roche a Pierrot [St-Cesaire] La Salpetriere [Remoulins] Wildscheuer Climautsy II Ceahlau-Cetatica II 29–26 ka –9.217 –2.458 1.676 2.747 –0.491 1.0833 1.366 4.213 2.335 1.5394 1.6285 0.855 1.673 –3.4987 –1.1957 –4.2419 4.971 4.972 4.995 4.513 4.674 5.662 13.083 13.8856 28.97 25.882 25.936 27.136 30.931 23.129 57.2 23.57 27.1533 38.901 43.066 41.539 42.161 38.778 44.85 44.797 44.412 43.314 45.143 43.0104 46.703 44.877 50.4625 53.2643 51.548 50.214 50.483 50.215 50.06 50.478 50.507 41.226 44.9012 47.847 47.028 47.022 48.033 52.75 48.157 65.1 48.171 48.5613 5 85 139 145 160 328 458 482 487 751 754 765 773 839 857 919 1002 1018 1019 1020 1041 1044 1301 1376 1538 1624 1633 1729 1753 1847 1853 1855 1858 2 25 36 37 39 70 82 84 87 154 156 161 165 174 177 180 203 205 206 207 212 213 254 278 321 327 328 343 351 369 370 371 372 33 sites Pego do Diabo Labeko Koba Abric Romani L’Arbreda Cova Beneito Le Flageolet I [Bezenac] Le Piage [Fajoles] Les Pecheurs [Casteljau] Canecaude I [Villardonel] Le Raysse [Brive-la-Gaillarde] Tuto de Camalhot [St-Jean de Verges] Fontenioux [St Pierre de Maille] Gr des Fieux [Miers] Kent’s Cavern Pin Hole Cave Paviland Cave [Goat’s Hole] Trou Magrite Gr. de la Princesse [Marche-les-Dames] Trou du Renard Trou de l’Abime, Couvin Gr du Spy Gr. du Haleux [Sprimont] Gr. del Fossellone Sandalja II Climautsy II Bistricioara-Lutarie Ceahlau-Cetatica I Korpach Berdyzh Korolevo I Byzovaya Molochnyi Kamen’ Korman’ IV 33–30 ka –9.217 –2.458 –3.84 –0.3 1.676 2.747 2.747 –3.892 –5.3 1 0.941 1.333 38.901 43.066 43.361 38.926 41.539 42.161 42.161 36.748 36.133 44.933 44.955 44.767 3 82 104 111 138 146 166 179 236 270 355 436 2 25 31 33 36 37 41 46 65 69 71 79 48 sites Pego do Diabo Labeko Koba Cueva Morin Mallaetes Cave Abric Romani L’Arbreda Reclau Viver Nerja Gorham’s Cave Abri Pataud La Ferrassie Roc de Combe [Nadaillac] Longitude Latitude ID # Site # 1.257 44.876 447 80 1.366 44.797 460 82 4.542 43.95 465 83 4.213 44.412 481 84 –0.492 45.044 486 86 –0.692 1.062 1.1016 –3.4987 –1.1957 –4.2419 –3.492 –2.8778 4.971 5.722 10.2 6.804 10.146 8.747 8.5069 15.6264 15.381 13.051 16.088 16.016 13.8856 16.6995 16.723 27.036 27.14 25.882 25.421 33.858 39.0452 39.0713 39.0553 37–34 ka –3.8834 –2.458 –5.117 –3.84 2.711 1 1.0833 0.941 4.3259 3.769 0.851 0.303 –0.692 –1.1916 –1.1957 –4.2419 –3.492 5.294 54 513 734 743 832 858 910 986 990 1001 1013 1096 1109 1111 1119 1122 1247 1288 1350 1371 1373 1375 1420 1437 1563 1622 1623 1667 1731 1765 1797 1827 91 151 152 174 177 180 199 200 203 204 216 218 219 222 223 248 251 270 276 277 278 300 302 325 326 327 335 344 357 359 365 Site Abri Caminade [Caneda] Le Piage [Fajoles] La Salpetriere [Remoulins] Les Pecheurs [Casteljau] Roc de Marcamps [Prignac-et-Marcamps] Gr. de Hyenes, Brassempouy Abri du Facteur La Rochette [St Leon sur Vezere] Kent’s Cavern Pin Hole Cave Paviland Cave [Goat’s Hole] Bench Quarry ‘Tunnel’ cavern Picken’s Hole, Layer 3 Trou Magrite Trou Walou Vogelherd Cave Lommersum Bockstein-Torle Paderborn Kelsterbach Gr. Paglicci Gr. La Cala Gr. Barbara Vindija Cave Velika Pecina 2 Sandalja II Milovice I Pod Hradem Cave A Mitoc Malul Galben Ripiceni-Izvor Bistricioara-Lutarie Bacho Kiro Siuren I Kostienki I Kostienki VIII [Tel’manskaya site] Kostienki XVII [Spitsyn site] 43.4398 77 43.066 84 43.657 98 43.361 106 41.776 196 44.933 269 44.85 323 44.955 347 43.9296 376 47.595 418 47.7 429 45.504 455 43.638 511 53.266 849 53.2643 873 51.548 900 50.4005 987 50.421 1045 24 25 30 31 51 69 70 71 72 76 78 81 91 175 177 180 199 214 36 sites Ruso [I] Labeko Koba La Guelga Cueva Morin Cal Coix Abri Pataud Le Flageolet I [Bezenac] La Ferrassie Esquicho-Grapaou Grotte du Renne, Arcy-sur-Cure Les Cottes [St Pierre de Maille] La Quina Y-Z [Villebois la Valette] Gr. de Hyenes, Brassempouy Robin Hood’s Cave Pin Hole Cave Paviland Cave [Goat’s Hole] Bench Quarry ‘Tunnel’ cavern Trou Al’Wesse 43.638 44.978 45.0158 50.4625 53.2643 51.548 50.4005 51.2908 50.214 50.589 48.56 50.7 48.554 51.713 50.0521 41.6671 40.001 41.229 46.305 46.291 44.9012 48.8538 49.389 48.111 47.943 47.028 42.944 44.642 51.3985 51.293703 51.3948 Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period Appendix 4.2. (cont.) AURIGNACIAN + EUP Longitude Latitude ID # Site # 9.772 48.401 1075 215 10.2 48.56 1094 216 10.168 48.551 1100 217 10.146 48.554 1112 219 9.7626 53.548 1118 221 8.137 50.421 1127 224 15.399 48.323 1186 240 15.237 40.495 1238 247 10.902 45.57 1274 250 14.86 40.858 1302 255 20.4108 48.0654 1402 290 16.6758 49.1845 1429 301 27.036 48.111 1554 325 25.421 42.944 1664 335 24.088 43.175 1678 336 39.0452 51.3985 1763 357 39.0524 51.3957 1804 361 39.0553 51.3948 1832 365 Site Das Geissenklosterle Vogelherd Cave Hohlenstein-Stadel IV Bockstein-Torle Hahnofersand Wildscheuer Willendorf II Castelcivita Abri Fumane Serino Istallosko cave Stranska-skala IIa Mitoc Malul Galben Bacho Kiro Temnata Cave Kostienki I Kostienki XII [Volkovskaya] Kostienki XVII [Spitsyn site] 42–38 ka –3.776 –5.8055 –3.9555 1.676 2.747 2.747 –0.491 0.941 1.333 1.257 –1.196 1.0995 34 sites Arenillas La Vina Castillo Abric Romani L’Arbreda Mollet Cave Cova Beneito La Ferrassie Roc de Combe [Nadaillac] Abri Caminade [Caneda] Isturitz [Isturits] A. Castanet [Sergeac] 43.481 43.314 43.2918 41.539 42.161 42.161 38.778 44.955 44.767 44.876 43.371 45.0068 88 92 124 143 152 158 159 344 433 449 708 712 26 28 35 36 37 38 39 71 79 80 139 141 Longitude Latitude ID # Site # 0.8836 45.2307 724 147 3.4987 50.4625 831 174 –1.1916 53.266 848 175 –1.1957 53.2643 862 177 –1.1957 53.2643 872 177 –2.8778 51.2908 989 200 4.971 50.214 998 203 5.294 50.421 1047 214 9.772 48.401 1070 215 6.804 50.7 1101 218 9.7626 53.548 1117 221 15.587 48.413 1212 241 15.6264 41.6671 1246 248 11.49 45.418 1266 249 10.902 45.57 1277 250 7.5475 43.7894 1296 252 16.016 46.291 1372 277 20.4264 48.0468 1403 291 16.723 49.389 1434 302 24.088 43.175 1675 336 39.0553 51.3948 1831 365 Site A. Combe Sauniere [Sarliac-sur-l’Isle]– Kent’s Cavern Robin Hood’s Cave Pin Hole Cave Pin Hole Cave Picken’s Hole, Layer 3 Trou Magrite Trou Al’Wesse Das Geissenklosterle Lommersum Hahnofersand Krems-Hundssteig Gr. Paglicci Gr. di Paina Abri Fumane Riparo Mochi Velika Pecina 2 Pesko cave Pod Hradem Cave A Temnata Cave Kostienki XVII [Spitsyn site] 47–43 ka 1.676 2.747 4.971 15.399 10.902 20.4108 39.0452 24.088 8 sites Abric Romani L’Arbreda Trou Magrite Willendorf II Abri Fumane Istallosko cave Kostienki I Temnata Cave 41.539 42.161 50.214 48.323 45.57 48.0654 51.3985 43.175 144 150 995 1182 1276 1398 1764 1674 36 37 203 240 250 290 357 366 Appendix 4.3. Sites used in this chapter: Gravettian and Upper Palaeolithic. GRAVETTIAN + UP Longitude Latitude 25–22 ka –8.9844 39.3541 –3.84 43.361 2.747 42.161 2.578 42.104 1 44.933 1.0833 44.85 3.769 47.595 4.542 43.95 –0.692 43.638 0.95 44.967 2.756 48.341 1.487 45.125 4.631 44.499 0.8836 45.2307 1.199 43.057 4.0286 45.9822 –4.2419 51.548 4.674 50.478 10.146 48.554 15.8795 48.2943 14.428 48.4 15.6264 41.6671 11.49 45.418 16.036 39.963 40.479 56.134 13.8856 44.9012 20.9165 39.6301 20.5324 48.0517 16.634 48.875 16.641 48.8666 16.634 48.875 18.262 49.865 ID # Site # 47 107 157 176 280 339 420 474 508 535 684 705 718 725 775 777 889 1042 1113 1171 1174 1261 1267 1321 1869 1379 1396 1408 1479 1491 1478 1513 13 31 37 44 69 70 76 83 91 99 124 137 145 147 166 167 180 212 219 237 239 248 249 265 274 278 289 293 308 308 308 310 Site 54 sites Terra do Manuel Cueva Morin L’Arbreda Roc de la Melca Abri Pataud Le Flageolet I [Bezenac] Grotte du Renne, Arcy-sur-Cure La Salpetriere [Remoulins] Brassempouy [Grande Galerie 2] Laugerie-Haute Est Montigny[-sur-Loing] Puy-Jarrige II [Brive-La-Gaillarde] Bouzil [Saint-Thome] A. Combe Sauniere [Sarliac-sur-l’Isle] Gr. d’Enlene [Montesquieu-Avantes] La Vigne Brun [St-Maurice-sur-Loire] Paviland Cave [Goat’s Hole] Gr. du Spy Bockstein-Torle Langmannersdorf A Alberndorf [in der Riedmark] Gr. Paglicci Gr. di Paina Gr. del Romito Sungir’ [Vladimir] Sandalja [III] Kastritsa Balla cave Dolni Vestonice I Dolni Vestonice II Dolni Vestonice I Petrkovice 55 Longitude Latitude ID # Site # 17.8802 48.6095 1517 313 17.8863 48.6087 1518 314 19.924 50.053 1524 317 19.93 50.054 1529 318 20.1563 49.443 1531 320 27.042 48.243 1539 322 27.167 48.25 1541 322 27.171 48.076 1549 323 27.171 48.076 1551 323 27.036 48.111 1612 325 25.882 47.028 1630 327 26.896 48.176 1642 332 24.088 43.175 1691 336 35.7886 51.6891 1737 346 31.722 47.282 1749 349 39.0452 51.3985 1767 357 39.0524 51.3957 1809 361 39.0669 51.3739 1824 363 39.0466 51.4112 1838 366 40.479 56.134 1870 374 38.9954 52.4957 1879 376 38.9954 52.4957 1881 376 39.9898 43.5583 1884 377 Site Moravany-Zakovska Moravany-Lopata II Spadzista St. A Krakow Oblazowa 1 Ciuntu Cave Ciuntu Cave Brinzeni Cave I Brinzeni Cave I Mitoc Malul Galben Bistricioara-Lutarie Coto Miculinti Temnata Cave Avdeevo Leski Kostienki I Kostienki XII [Volkovskaya] Kostienki XV [Gorodtsov site] Kostienki XXI [Gmelinskaya] Sungir’ [Vladimir] Gagarino Gagarino Akhchtyr Cave 29–26 ka –8.923 –8.541 –8.696 –3.892 –1.9044 1.0833 0.941 3.769 64 sites Cabeco de Porto Marinho III Buraca Escura Abrigo do Lagar Velho Nerja Vestibulo Aitzbitarte III Le Flageolet I [Bezenac] La Ferrassie Arcy-sur-Cure [Grande Grotte?] 39.376 39.988 39.745 36.748 43.2654 44.85 44.955 47.595 27 52 63 182 224 334 364 393 8 15 19 46 61 70 71 74 Chapter 4 Appendix 4.3. (cont.) GRAVETTIAN + UP Longitude Latitude 3.7694 47.595 1.333 44.767 1.366 44.797 4.542 43.95 4.424 44.387 4.72 46.818 4.726 46.299 4.726 46.299 0.71667 46.4 4.631 44.499 1.062 44.978 2.8818 43.3409 ID # Site # 395 74 442 79 463 82 475 83 501 88 549 103 558 106 555 106 574 110 717 145 736 151 750 153 1.5394 1.6285 0.855 4.0286 –1.1916 –2.6761 5.722 3.987 5.205 9.772 10.2 10.146 11.669 11.79 9.758 6.642 15.662 14.428 15.399 15.693 15.395 15.6264 11.565 11.259 17.584 20.845 23.137 20.5324 17.361 16.678 18.262 18.084 20.1563 27.036 24.088 27.055 35.7886 31.722 39.0481 39.0524 39.0365 752 755 766 781 846 949 1008 1029 1038 1081 1098 1114 1137 1138 1153 1160 1173 1175 1202 1227 1233 1254 1308 1351 1353 1391 1393 1409 1424 1461 1514 1516 1535 1577 1690 1728 1740 1748 1799 1802 1814 45.143 43.0104 46.703 45.9822 53.266 51.2263 50.589 50.473 50.581 48.401 48.56 48.554 50.681 48.93 48.378 50.228 48.67 48.4 48.323 48.475 48.293 41.6671 45.466 43.976 40.727 39.289 37.4201 48.0517 49.219 48.872 49.865 48.322 49.443 48.111 43.175 48.547 51.6891 47.282 51.3848 51.3857 51.3931 154 156 161 167 175 188 204 208 210 215 216 219 226 227 231 232 238 239 240 244 245 248 258 271 272 286 288 293 300 307 310 312 320 325 336 342 346 349 360 361 362 Site Grande Grotte, Arcy-sur-Cure Roc de Combe [Nadaillac] Le Piage [Fajoles] La Salpetriere [Remoulins] Grotte Chauvet Les Vignes [St-Martin sous Montaigu] Solutre [O/A] Solutre [O/A] Gr. de Laraux Bouzil [Saint-Thome] Abri du Facteur Gr. Tournal (or Grande Grotte de Bize) [Bize-Minervois] Le Raysse [Brive-la-Gaillarde] Tuto de Camalhot [St-Jean de Verges] Fontenioux [St Pierre de Maille] La Vigne Brun [St-Maurice-sur-Loire] Robin Hood’s Cave Hyaena Den Trou Walou Maisieres-Canal L’Hermitage [Huccorgne] Das Geissenklosterle Vogelherd Cave Bockstein-Torle Kniegrotte Obere Klause Hohle[r] Fels Magdalenahohle Horn (Raberstrasse) Alberndorf [in der Riedmark] Willendorf II Langenlois Aggsbach Gr. Paglicci Gr. del Broion Bilancino Gr. di Santa Maria di Agnano Asprochaliko Franchthi Balla cave Milovice I Pavlov I Petrkovice Nitra-Cerman Oblazowa 1 Mitoc Malul Galben Temnata Cave Molodova V [Kosoutsy] Avdeevo Leski Kostienki X Kostienki XI [Anosovka site 2] Kostienki XIV [Markina Gora] 56 Longitude Latitude ID # Site # 39.0321 51.3957 1826 364 39.0466 51.4112 1839 366 34.1497 53.3253 1844 368 57.2 65.1 1854 370 Site Kostienki XVI [Uglianka] Kostienki XXI [Gmelinskaya] Khotylevo II Byzovaya VI 33–30 ka –1.506 –2.2008 –4.8375 1 1.0833 0.941 3.7694 1.366 4.424 4.726 2.15 –0.162 –0.162 43.26 43.2274 43.4205 44.933 44.85 44.955 47.595 44.797 44.387 46.299 43.4833 43.107 43.107 212 216 229 283 330 369 394 462 502 557 697 733 802 58 60 64 69 70 71 74 82 88 106 132 150 171 5.722 4.513 3.987 5.205 9.772 9.772 11.065 9.758 15.399 15.604 15.693 15.395 15.6264 15.381 19.3813 16.678 16.634 17.4395 18.089 27.171 27.036 27.055 39.0452 39.0365 39.0669 40.479 50.589 50.06 50.473 50.581 48.401 48.401 48.773 48.378 48.323 48.415 48.475 48.293 41.6671 40.001 47.7768 48.872 48.875 49.4562 48.966 48.076 48.111 48.547 51.3985 51.3931 51.3739 56.134 1009 1022 1024 1034 1085 1092 1139 1150 1191 1213 1230 1232 1251 1286 1411 1462 1467 1510 1515 1548 1574 1725 1792 1819 1825 1866 204 207 208 210 215 215 228 231 240 242 244 245 248 251 295 307 308 309 311 323 325 342 357 362 363 374 39 sites Alkerdi Amalda Cave Cueto de la Mina Abri Pataud Le Flageolet I [Bezenac] La Ferrassie Grande Grotte, Arcy-sur-Cure Le Piage [Fajoles] Grotte Chauvet Solutre [O/A] Gr. du Castellas [Dourgne] Trou du Rhinoceros [St-Pe-de-Bigorre] Grotte de Courau (Grotte Saucet) [St-Pe-de-Bigorre] Trou Walou Trou de l’Abime, Couvin Maisieres-Canal L’Hermitage [Huccorgne] Das Geissenklosterle Das Geissenklosterle Weinberghohlen [Mauern 2] Hohle[r] Fels Willendorf II Krems-Wachtberg Langenlois Aggsbach Gr. Paglicci Gr. La Cala Puspokhatvan Pavlov I Dolni Vestonice I Predmosti Nemsova Brinzeni Cave I Mitoc Malul Galben Molodova V [Kosoutsy] Kostienki I Kostienki XIV [Markina Gora] Kostienki XV [Gorodtsov site] Sungir’ [Vladimir] 38–34 ka 9.758 16.634 24.088 39.0756 39.0365 40.0034 48.378 48.875 43.175 51.3712 51.3931 44.2217 1159 1472 1686 1796 1821 1892 231 308 336 358 362 379 6 sites Hohle[r] Fels Dolni Vestonice I Temnata Cave Kostienki VI Kostienki XIV [Markina Gora] Mezmaiskaya

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The Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period I: Human Migrations and the Changing Climate

The Human Presence in Europe during the Last Glacial Period I: Human Migrations and the Changing Climate

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