This document contains the two papers referenced below: Grimes, J.O., Cheek, J.M., & Norem, J.K. (2011, January). Four meanings of introversion: a Social, thinking, anxious, and inhibited introversion. Presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, San Antonio, TX. Cheek, J.M., Brown, C.A., & Grimes, J.O. (2014, Sept.). Personality Scales for Four Domains of Introversion: Social, Thinking, Anxious, and Restrained Introversion. Preliminary Research Manual, Department of Psychology, Wellesley College, Wellesley MA. 024818203 jcheek@wellesley.edu 2nd ed. 2014, with update addendum September 28 2020 for Revised Restrained Introversion Scale for STAR Introversion. a Note: After the 2011 paper, we renamed the Inhibited factor as Restrained Introversion, with reference to the work of J.P. Guilford. Available at: https://wellesley.academia.edu/JonathanCheek * Four Meanings of Introversion: Social, Thinking, Anxious, and Inhibited Introversion Jennifer O. Grimes Jonathan M. Cheek and Julie K. Norem Wellesley College Presented at the Society for Personality and Social Psychology Annual Meeting, January 2011, San Antonio, TX Contact: Jennifer O. Grimes or Jonathan Cheek Wellesley College Department of Psychology jgrimes@wellesley.edu - jcheek@wellesley.edu Guilford demonstrated in the 1930s that the various attempts at transforming Jungian and other conceptualizations of Introversion-Extroversion into personality questionnaires were resulting in ambiguous multiple-factor scales. Proposed measurement models subdividing introversion into components resulted in heated but inconclusive debate, as exemplified by the exchange between Eysenck and Guilford in 1977 and seen again in the critique of Lucas, Diener, Grob, Suh, and Shao (2000) by Ashton, Lee, and Paunonen (2002). Carrigan (1960) argued that introversion was not effectively captured as a unitary construct, and pressure to clearly define introversion with a comprehensive conceptual and operational model continues (e.g., Block, 1995; 2010). The many meanings of introversion leave contemporary researchers with an unresolved dilemma: despite the persistent conceptual ambiguity and lack of a universally accepted measurement model, interest in the topic and demand for measures seems to be increasing (e.g., Laney, 2002; http://www.thepowerofintroverts.com ). The purpose of the present research was to return to recommendations made by previous generations of psychologists such as Guilford and Guilford (1934) and Murray (1938) that four or five factors might be needed to account for the meaningful distinctions that exist within the broad personality dimension termed “introversion-extraversion.” We identified contemporary personality measures that can be usefully organized into measurement domains that reflect coherent meanings of “introversion.” METHOD The nineteen personality scales presented in Table 1 were administered to 225 female students. These measures were grouped by examination of intercorrelations and factor loadings into four domains of introversion. Table 1: Personality Measures Included in Each of the Four Domains of Introversion Domain 1: Social Introversion Preference for Solitude (Burger, 1995) [.83] Positive Stimulation subscale of the Interpersonal Orientation Scale: (Hill, 1987) (R) [.75] Gregariousness Facet of the NEO-PI Extraversion scale (Costa & McCrae, 1992) (R) [.88] Warmth Facet of the NEO-PI Extraversion scale (Costa & McCrae, 1992) (R) [.80] Domain 2: Thinking Introversion Introspectiveness (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975; Guilford, 1959) [.64] Fantasy subscale of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Davis, 1983) [.58] Openness Scale of the Big Five Inventory (John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991) [.76] Personal Identity Orientation (Cheek, 1989) [.69] Rich Inner Life factor of the Highly Sensitive Person Scale (Aron & Aron, 1997; Cheek et al., 2009) [.78] Domain 3: Anxious Introversion Shyness (Cheek & Melchior, 1985) [.83] Rumination (Trapnell & Campbell, 1999) [.70] Temperamental Sensitivity factor of the Highly Sensitive Person Scale (Aron & Aron, 1997; Cheek et al., 2009) [.77] Hypersensitive Narcissism (Hendin & Cheek, 1997) [.77] Positive Emotions Facet of the NEO-PI Extraversion scale (Costa & McCrae, 1992) (R) [.54] Assertiveness Facet of the NEO-PI Extraversion scale (Costa & McCrae, 1992) (R) [.68] Domain 4: Inhibited* Introversion [* renamed Restrained Introversion in 2014] Sensation-seeking subscale of EASI Impulsivity (Buss & Plomin, 1975) (R) [.70] EASI Activity (Buss & Plomin, 1975) (R) [.84] Excitement-seeking Facet of the NEO-PI Extraversion scale (Costa & McCrae, 1992) (R) [.70] Activity Facet of the NEO-PI Extraversion scale (Costa & McCrae, 1992) (R) [.85] Note: (R) indicates scales that were reverse-scored from the direction of extraversion to the direction of introversion. Numbers in square brackets are the loadings for each scale on the first unrotated factor of the measures within each domain (i.e., from four separate principal component analyses). 2 RESULTS Correlations among factor scores representing these domains indicated moderate convergence among social, anxious, and inhibited introversion (rs averaging around .50). Thinking introversion, however, did not correlate significantly with any of the other three domains (see Table 2). Table 2: Correlations among Factor Scores for Measures of Each Introversion Domain Thinking Introversion Anxious Introversion Inhibited * Introversion Social Introversion -.05 Thinking Introversion .46* -.01 .57* -.15 N = 225 * p  .01. Anxious Introversion .49* [*Note: Inhibited Introversion was renamed Restrained Introversion in 2014.] CONCLUSION The results for the Thinking factor raise the question of whether or not it should be considered a domain of introversion at all. The constructors of one of the scales defining that domain asserted that “the private dimension of self-consciousness is similar to the Jungian conception of introversion” (Fenigstein et al., 1975, p. 525). Moreover, after more than 40 years of research on the measurement of personality dimensions, Guilford (1977) argued that thinking introversion was essential to the definition of the higher order factor of introversion-extraversion. The status of thinking introversion would be a promising target for further research. We agree with Carrigan’s conclusion that when researchers use the term introversion “care must be taken to specify its conceptual and operational referent” (1960, p. 358). Rather than using the word by itself, researchers should put a specific modifier in front of it, whether it be Jungian introversion, or Eysenckian, or Big Five, or one of the four domains presented in the present research: social, thinking, anxious, or inhibited introversion. REFERENCES Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., & Paunonen, S. V. (2002). What is the central feature of extraversion? Social attention versus reward sensitivity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 245-252. 3 Block, J. (2010). The five-factor framing of personality and beyond: Some ruminations. Psychological Inquiry, 21, 2-25. Block, J. (1995). A contrarian view of the five-factor approach to personality description. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 187-215. Carrigan, P. M. (1960). Extraversion-introversion as a dimension of personality: A reappraisal. Psychological Bulletin, 57, 329-360. Eysenck, H. J. (1977). Personality and factor analysis: A reply to Guilford. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 405-411. Fenigstein, A., Scheier, M. F., & Buss, A. H. (1975). Public and private selfconsciousness: Assessment and theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522-527. Guilford, J. P. (1977). Will the real factor of extraversion-introversion please stand up? A reply to Eysenck. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 412-416. Guilford, J. P. & Guilford, R. B. (1934). An analysis of the factors in a typical test of introversion-extroversion. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28, 377-399. Laney, M. O. (2002). The introvert advantage. New York: Workman Publishing. Lucas, R. E., Diener, E., Grob, A., Suh, E. M., & Shao, L. (2000). Cross-cultural evidence for the fundamental features of extraversion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 452-468. Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University Press. References for Measures Cited in Table 1 Aron, E., & Aron, A. (1997). Sensory processing sensitivity and its relation to introversion and emotionality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 345-368. Burger, J. (1995). Individual differences in preference for solitude. Journal of Research in Personality, 29, 85-108. Buss, A.H., & Plomin, R. (1975). A temperament theory of personality development. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 4 Cheek, J.M. (1989). Identity orientations and self-interpretation. In D.M. Buss & N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions (pp. 275-285). New York: Springer-Verlag. https://www.academia.edu/4491708/Identity_Orientations_and_SelfInterpretation Cheek, J.M., Bourgeois, M.L., Theran, S.A., Grimes, J.O., & Norem, J.K. (2009, February). Interpreting the factors of the Highly Sensitive Person Scale. Annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Tampa, FL. Cheek, J.M., & Melchior, L.A. (1985). Measuring the three components of shyness. In M.H. Davis & S.L. Franzoi (Co-chairs), Emotion, Personality, and Personal WellBeing II. Symposium conducted at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles. http://www.wellesley.edu/Psychology/Cheek/research.html Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Professional manual for the revised NEO Personality Inventory. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 113-126. Fenigstein, A., Scheier, M. F., & Buss, A. H. (1975). Public and private selfconsciousness: Assessment and theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522-527. Guilford, J.P. (1959). Personality. New York: McGraw-Hill. Hendin, H. M., & Cheek, J.M. (1997). Assessing hypersensitive narcissism: A Reexamination of Murray’s Narcism Scale. Journal of Research in Personality, 31, 588-599. Hill, C. A. (1987). Affiliation motivation: People who need people…but in different ways. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1008-1018. John, O. P., Donahue, E. M., & Kentle, R. L. (1991). The “Big Five” Inventory— Versions 4a and 54 (Technical Report). Berkeley, California: University of California, Institute of Personality Assessment and Research. Trapnell, P.D., & Campbell, J.D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 284-304. 5 Personality Scales for Four Domains of Introversion: Social, Thinking, Anxious, and Restrained Introversion -Preliminary Research Manual DOI: 10.13140/2.1.2173.5685 2nd edition, September 2014 [with 2020 update Revised RI scale] * Jonathan M. Cheek, Courtney A. Brown, and Jennifer O. Grimes Department of Psychology, Wellesley College, Wellesley MA 02481-8203 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265728649 These 10-item scales were developed based on a study (n = 225) that had originally been analyzed as four factor scores composed of 19 personality scales representing these domains of introversion (Grimes, Cheek, & Norem, 2011; see http://www.academia.edu/7353616/ ) Table 1: Correlations among Introversion Factors and Domain Scales Social Introversion Social Thinking Introversion Anxious Introversion Restrained Introversion (.84) Introversion Thinking -.05 / .09 (.77) .46* / .39* -.01 / .18* (.87) .57* /.45* -.15 / -.01 .49* / .29* Introversion Anxious Introversion Restrained Introversion (.85) Note: n= 225 college women, * p <.01; Numbers in parentheses indicate the correlations between the scale and the factor. Also, for each pair of correlations reported above, the first number is the correlation between the two factors, and the second number is the correlation between the two domain scales. A second sample was obtained using Amazon MTurk: Correlations among Introversion Domain Scales Social Introversion Thinking Introversion Anxious Introversion Social Introversion (.84) Thinking Introversion .01 (.86) Anxious Introversion .53* .07 (.90) Restrained Introversion .38* -.15* .29* Restrained Introversion (.73) Note: n=516, *p<.01; Numbers in parentheses indicate the alpha coefficients of internal consistency reliability for the 10-item introversion domain scales. Scoring the 4 STAR (Social, Thinking, Anxious, Restrained) Domains of Introversion RECODE the Reverse-Worded items before computing Scale scores: (1=5) (2=4) (4=2) (5=1) Social Introversion items: 2, 4, & 7 Thinking Introversion item: 5 Anxious Introversion items: 4, 6, & 7 Restrained Introversion items: 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, & 9 [differs for Revised Restrained #] See last page of this document Alpha coefficients of internal consistency reliability for 10-item scales: n= 225 Wellesley College n=516 Internet Respondents Women Social Introversion .73 .84 Thinking Introversion .77 .86 Anxious Introversion .83 .90 Restrained Introversion .74 .73 Means and Standard Deviations for the 10-item scales in a sample of college women and in a sample of internet respondents: Mean Standard Deviation Social Introversion (S): College Women Internet Respondents 5.58 30.23 a 6.94 38.98 b 5.10 37.01 6.83 29.35 7.11 29.87 8.85 31.13 5.84 32.16 6.05 35.80 Thinking Introversion (T): College Women Internet Respondents Anxious Introversion (A): College Women Internet Respondents Restrained Introversion (R): College Women Internet Respondents n=225 College Women n= 516 internet respondents a MTurk internet workers might be expected to score higher in social introversion than the general population. b Mean scale scores for Thinking Introversion might be lower in samples not composed entirely of college students. T-tests for Gender Groups on STAR Introversion domain scales in the internet sample Gender Mean t p d Social Introversion Thinking Introversion Anxious Introversion Female 36.07 Male 35.61 Female 36.97 Male 37.05 Female 30.76 Male Restrained Female Introversion See Revised Restrained Male Introversion Scale on last page .76 .45 .07 -.13 .89 .01 2.23 .03 .20 4.04 .001 .36 29.03 33.25 31.13 n=251 Females n=265 Males Effect sizes calculated using the following calculator: http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/escalc/html/EffectSizeCalculator-SMD8.php Cheek, J.M., Brown, C.A & Grimes, J.O. (2014, September). Preliminary research manual for personality scales for four domains of introversion: Social, Thinking, Anxious, and Restrained Introversion (2nd ed.). Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, Wellesley College, Wellesley MA 02481. (Available from jcheek@wellesley.edu ) STAR-INT-S [Social] Please answer the following questions by deciding to what extent each item is characteristic of your feelings and behavior. Fill in the blank next to each item by choosing a number from the scale printed below. 1 = very uncharacteristic or untrue, strongly disagree 2 = uncharacteristic 3 = neutral 4 = characteristic 5 = very characteristic or true, strongly agree ____ 1. I like to share special occasions with just one person or a few close friends, rather than have big celebrations. ____ 2. I think it would be satisfying if I could have very close friendships with many people. ____ 3. I try to structure my day so that I always have some time to myself. ____ 4. I like to vacation in places where there are a lot of people around and a lot of activities going on. ____ 5. After spending a few hours surrounded by a lot of people, I am usually eager to get away by myself. ____ 6. I do not have a strong need to be around other people. ____ 7. Just being around others and finding out about them is one of the most interesting things I can think of doing. ____ 8. I usually prefer to do things alone. ____ 9. Other people tend to misunderstand me—forming a mistaken impression of what kind of person I am because I don’t say much about myself. ____ 10. I feel drained after social situations, even when I enjoyed myself. STAR-INT-T [Thinking] Please answer the following questions by deciding to what extent each item is characteristic of your feelings and behavior. Fill in the blank next to each item by choosing a number from the scale printed below. 1 = very uncharacteristic or untrue, strongly disagree 2 = uncharacteristic 3 = neutral 4 = characteristic 5 = very characteristic or true, strongly agree ____ 1. I enjoy analyzing my own thoughts and ideas about myself. ____ 2. I have a rich, complex inner life. ____ 3. I frequently think about what kind of person I am. ____ 4. When I am reading an interesting story or novel or when I am watching a good movie, I imagine how I would feel if the events in the story were happening to me. ____ 5. I seldom think about myself. ____ 6. I generally pay attention to my inner feelings. ____ 7. I value my personal self-evaluation, that is, the private opinion I have of myself. ____ 8. I sometimes step back (in my mind) in order to examine myself from a distance. ____ 9. I daydream and fantasize, with some regularity, about things that might happen to me. ____ 10. I am inclined to be introspective, that is, to analyze myself. STAR-INT-A [Anxious] Please answer the following questions by deciding to what extent each item is characteristic of your feelings and behavior. Fill in the blank next to each item by choosing a number from the scale printed below. 1 = very uncharacteristic or untrue, strongly disagree 2 = uncharacteristic 3 = neutral 4 = characteristic 5 = very characteristic or true, strongly agree ____ 1. When I enter a room I often become self-conscious and feel that the eyes of others are upon me. ____ 2. My thoughts are often focused on episodes of my life that I wish I’d stop thinking about. ____ 3. My nervous system sometimes feels so frazzled that I just have to get off by myself. ____ 4. I am confident about my social skills. ____ 5. Defeat or disappointment usually shame or anger me, but I try not to show it. ____ 6. It does not take me long to overcome my shyness in new situations. ____ 7. I feel relaxed even in unfamiliar social situations. ____ 8. Even when I am in a group of friends, I often feel very alone and uneasy. ____ 9. My secret thoughts, feelings, and actions would horrify some of my friends. ____ 10. I feel painfully self-conscious when I am around strangers. Original STAR-INT-R [Restrained scale; items/scale has been revised; see next page] *** Please answer the following questions by deciding to what extent each item is characteristic of your feelings and behavior. Fill in the blank next to each item by choosing a number from the scale printed below. 1 = very uncharacteristic or untrue, strongly disagree 2 = uncharacteristic 3 = neutral 4 = characteristic 5 = very characteristic or true, strongly agree ____ 1. I like to be off and running as soon as I wake up in the morning. ____ 2. I’ll try anything once. ____ 3. For relaxation I like to slow down and take things easy. ____ 4. I like to wear myself out with exertion. ____ 5. I often say the first thing that comes into my head. ____ 6. I generally seek new and exciting experiences and sensations. ____ 7. I like to keep busy all the time. ____ 8. I often act on the spur of the moment. ____ 9. I sometimes do “crazy” things just to be different. ____ 10. I often feel sluggish. *** See replacement RI - Revised Restrained Introversion Scale on next page >>> STAR-INT-R [Revised Restrained Introversion Scale; replaces the original RI] Please answer the following questions by deciding to what extent each item is characteristic of your feelings and behavior. Fill in the blank next to each item by choosing a number from the scale printed below. 1 = very uncharacteristic or untrue, strongly disagree 2 = uncharacteristic 3 = neutral 4 = characteristic 5 = very characteristic or true, strongly agree ____ 1. I tend to make decisions slowly and carefully. ____ 2. I take my time to "look before I leap" into new things. ____ 3. I often say the first thing that comes into my head. ____ 4. I like to plan ahead for upcoming things in my life. ____ 5. I generally seek new and exciting experiences and sensations. ____ 6. Emotion or impulse hardly ever cause me to act without thinking. ____ 7. I like to think through all the alternatives before taking action. ____ 8. I’ll try anything once. ____ 9. I usually take things in my life pretty seriously. ____ 10. I often act on the spur of the moment. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Notes: RECODE the Reverse-Worded items before computing Scale scores: (1=5) (2=4) (4=2) (5=1) Restrained Introversion – revised scale items to recode: 3, 5, 8, & 10 In an internet sample (N = 274) the Revised Restrained Introversion Scale had an alpha coefficient of internal consistency reliability of .81 and it correlated with the original STAR RI scale r = .64. The 10-item Revised RI Scale contains 4 of the original 10 RI scale items, and its mean was 36.96 (sd = 6.31; N = 274). Respondents who identified as male (N = 123) had a mean of 36.37 (sd = 6.52) and those who identified as female (N = 146) had a mean of 37.50 (sd = 6.15) [t(67) = -1.13, p = .15]. (for further details email jcheek@wellesley.edu)