How we walk affects what we remember: Gait modifications through biofeedback change negative affective memory bias
Introduction
A number of studies have shown that physical exercise has effects on mood and can be therapeutic for patients suffering from Major Depressive Disorders (MDD). In a meta-analysis by Reed and Ones (2006) including 158 studies it was shown that engaging in acute exercise (e.g. walking) increases positive affect. In addition, Mata et al. (2012) found that natural variations in physical activity had effects on mood in depressed individuals. In this 1-week experience sampling study depressed individuals expressed higher levels of positive affect when they were physically active than during sedentary periods. Moreover, studies investigating physical exercise as a treatment approach have documented that engaging in prescribed exercise significantly reduces levels of depressive symptoms in clinical samples (Conney et al., 2013). Remarkably, the effects of exercise on MDD seem to be comparable to effects of antidepressant medication (Babyak et al., 2000, Hoffman et al., 2011).
Most of these physical treatment approaches to MDD posit that the central operating mechanism is the increased intensity of activity (Ekkekakis, 2003). It is proposed that the low activity level, which is characteristic for depressed individuals, should by increased to achieve the positive effects of exercises. However, in addition to a generally low level of activity, depressed individuals often show a number of further motoric characteristics. One central motoric characteristic of depressed individuals is a deviant gait pattern. A number of studies have shown a close relationship between walking style and depression (Bader et al., 1999, Lemke et al., 2000, Paleacu et al., 2007, Sloman et al., 1982, Sloman et al., 1987). In a comprehensive analysis of gait characteristics in patients suffering from a current episode of major depression, for example, it has been demonstrated that patients not only showed reduced walking speed (i.e., activity level) but also smaller arm-swing amplitudes, smaller amplitude of vertical movements of the upper body, larger amplitudes of lateral body sway, and a more slumped and forward-leaning posture than healthy controls (Michalak et al., 2009). An analysis of speed dependent changes in gait parameters in non-clinical samples (Thorstensson, Nilsson, Carlson, & Zomlefer, 1984) makes it unlikely that gait characteristics of depressed patients are solely attributable to reduced walking speed (i.e., the intensity of walking).
A large body of basic research points to the fact that not only changes in general activity level but also more subtle motoric changes can have profound effects on emotional information processing. Under the term ‘embodiment’ numerous studies have shown a complex and reciprocal relationship between the bodily expression of emotion and the way in which emotional information is processed (Niedenthal, 2007, Niedenthal et al., 2005).
The fact that emotional processes affect bodily states seems to be almost trivial. Obviously, emotions are expressed by the facial muscular system, but also in the static posture and dynamic activity of the whole body (Oberman et al., 2007, Pitcher et al., 2008). More interesting are demonstrations of causal relations in the other direction. Diverse affective and cognitive processes are affected by manipulations of the muscular-skeletal system. For instance, in a seminal study Strack, Martin, and Stepper (1988) asked participants to hold a pen between their teeth, which forced them to contract the zygomaticus major muscle that is normally involved in the production of a smile. They found that the participants enjoyed cartoons more than those who were prevented from making zygomaticus contractions. Similarly, Stepper and Strack (1993) demonstrated that a slumped versus an upright sitting posture affected the way participants perceived positive feedback on a previously completed achievement test.
Bodily processes can also influence affective memory. Riskind (1983) showed that certain postures affected the ease with which participants were able to recall either pleasant or unpleasant life experience and Förster and Strack (1996) demonstrated that nodding or shaking the head influences a person's recall of positive and negative words.
Although basic research on embodiment effects on emotional information processing is flourishing, research on the effects of motoric system on processes relevant for psychopathological phenomena is largely lacking. In the current study, we manipulated participants' gait to adopt features reflecting the characteristics of happy or depressed walking behaviour using a biofeedback method. We then measured how many negative and positive words participants recalled from a previously presented list of items. Biased processing of self-referent material is one of the most intensively studied cognitive-affective correlates of depression. A large body of research has found that depression affects how information about oneself is processed, as evidenced by enhanced encoding and recall of negative self-referent material and by a reduced processing of positive information (Mathews and MacLeod, 2005, Matt et al., 1992, Williams et al., 1997). We expected to observe a memory bias such that manipulating the participants to walk in a more depressed way would shift recall towards relatively more negative words, and making them walk happier would bias them towards remembering relatively more positive words. Walking speed was held constant across conditions to rule out that mere differences in activity level are responsible for group differences in memory bias. We choose memory bias as our primary outcome variable because we expected that the relatively short time gait changes we aimed to induce would have effects on more subtle emotional information processes (i.e., memory bias), before effects on conscious experienced affective states could be detected. However, we also assessed the conscious affective state in order to investigate whether the linkage between motor behavior and affective processes was mediated by the explicit experience of affective states or whether the sensorimotor system can affect these functions directly before effects on conscious affect become apparent.
Section snippets
Participants
A total of 47 volunteers participated in this study. All were students from Queen's University who received either course credit for their participation or a monetary compensation of $20. Data from eight of the participants were not usable due to technical problems and resulting data loss. The analysis was therefore based on data from 39 participants.
Apparatus
An optical motion capture system (17 cameras, 120 Hz sampling rate, Qualisys, Gothenburg, Sweden) was used to acquire in real time full-body
Participants
Participant characteristics are displayed in Table 1. We found no significant differences between the two groups for any of the assessed characteristics. Informal questioning at the end of the experiment clearly showed that none of the participants had the slightest idea what the true intention of the experiment was. Specifically, they did not realize that the gauge responded to characteristics of happy versus depressed walking.
Responses to biofeedback
Scores as measured during the one-minute period before the
Discussion
The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of changes in gait patterns on affective memory bias. Participants received online gait feedback, which altered their gait pattern towards a walking pattern that resembled the one of individuals who were either happier than normal or more depressed than normal. We hypothesized that participants would recall relatively more negative words when walking in a depressed manner and relatively more positive words when walking in a more happy
Acknowledgements
We thank Stephen Scovil for his tremendous help with the experimental setup. This study was funded by German Research Foundation Grant Mi 700/5-1 awarded to JM, by an NSERC discovery grant and contributions from the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research to NFT, and by a stipend from the German Academic Exchange Service to KR.
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